Cattle
VIEW:46 DATA:01-04-2020
CATTLE.The word commonly used in OT is miqneh, meaning primarily possessions or wealthoxen, camels, sheep, and goats being the only wealth of peoples in a nomadic stage of civilization. It includes sometimes horses and asses, e.g. Exo_9:3, Job_1:3. The word is also sometimes rendered possessions (e.g. Ecc_2:7), flocks (Psa_78:46), and herds (Gen_47:18). For other words rendered in EV [Note: English Version.] cattle, see Beast. See also Ox, Sheep, Shepherd, etc.
E. W. G. Masterman.
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible
Edited by James Hastings, D.D. Published in 1909
Cattle. See Bull.
Smith's Bible Dictionary
By Dr. William Smith.Published in 1863
kat?'l (בּהמה, behēmāh, ?a dumb beast?; מקנה, miḳneh, ?a possession? from קנה, ḳānāh, ?to acquire? (compare Arabic ḳana), ?to acquire,? and Greek κτῆνος, ktḗnos, ?beast,? and plural κτήνεα, ktḗnea, ?flocks,? from κτάομαι, ktáomai, ?to acquire,? flocks being both with the Homeric peoples and with the patriarchs an important form of property; compare English ?fee?); צאן, cō'n ?small cattle,? ?sheep? or goats (compare Arabic ḍa'n, ?sheep?); שׂה, seh, a single sheep or goat (compare Arabic shāh); מלאכה, melā'khāh, ?property,? from לאך, lā'akh, ?to minister? (compare Arabic malākah and mulk, ?property,? from malak, ?to possess?); מריא, merı̄' ?fatling? (1 Ki 19); θρέμμα, thrémma (Joh_4:12), ?cattle,? i.e. ?that which is nourished,? from τρέφω, tréphō, ?to nourish?; בּקר, bāḳār, ?kine,? ?oxen? (compare Arabic baḳar, ?cattle?); שׁור, shōr, תּור, tōr (Dan_4:25), ταῦρος, taúros (Mat_22:4), ?ox? or ?bull?; βοῦς, boús, ?ox? (Luk_13:15); אלף, 'eleph, only in the plural, אלפים, 'ălāphı̄m, ?oxen? (Psa_8:7)): From the foregoing and by examination of the many references to ?cattle,? ?kine? or ?oxen? it is apparent that there are important points of contact in derivation and usage in the Hebrew, Greek and English terms. It is evident that neat cattle were possessed in abundance by the patriarchs and later Israelites, which is fax from being the case in Palestine at the present day. The Bedouin usually have no cattle. The fellāḥı̄n in most parts of the country keep them in small numbers, mostly for plowing, and but little for milk or for slaughtering. Travelers in the Holy Land realize that goat's milk is in most places easier to obtain than cow's milk. The commonest cattle of the fellachin are a small black breed. In the vicinity of Damascus are many large, fine milch cattle which furnish the delicious milk and cream of the Damascus bazaars. For some reason, probably because they are not confined and highly fed, the bulls of Palestine are meek creatures as compared with their European or American fellows.
In English Versions of the Bible the word ?cattle? is more often used in a wide sense to include sheep and goats than to denote merely neat cattle. In fact, bāḳār, which distinctively denotes neat cattle, is often rendered ?herds,? as cō'n, literally ?sheep,? is in a large number of instances translated ?flocks.? A good illustration is found in Gen_32:7 : ?Then Jacob ... divided the, people (‛ām) that were with him, and the flocks (cō'n), and the herds (bāḳār), and the camels (gemallı̄m), into two companies (maḥănōth).? For the last word the King James Version has ?drove? in Gen_33:8, the Revised Version (British and American) ?company.? Next to cō'n, the word most commonly rendered ?flock? in English Versions of the Bible is ‛ēdher, from root ?to arrange,? ?to set in order.? ‛Ēdher is rendered ?herd? in Pro_27:23, and in Joe_1:18 it occurs twice, being rendered ?herds of cattle,? ‛edhrē bāḳār, and ?flocks of sheep,? ‛edhrē ha-cō'ň. Miḳneh is rendered ?flock? in Num_32:26, ?herd? in Gen_47:18, and ?cattle? in a large number of passages. Other words rendered ?flock? are: mar‛ı̄th (r, rā‛āh (Arabic ra‛a), ?to pasture?), once in Jer_10:21; 'ashterōth cō'n, ?flocks of thy sheep,? the Revised Version (British and American) ?young of thy flock,? in Deu_7:13, etc., ‛ashtārōth being plural of ‛ashtōreth, or Ashtoreth; ḥāsı̄ph, once in 1Ki_20:27 : ?The Children of Israel encamped before them (the Syrians) like two little flocks of kids,? ḥāsı̄ph signifying ?something stripped off or separated,? from root ḥāsaph, ?to strip? or ?to peel,? like the Arabic ḳaṭı̄‛, ?flock,? from root ḳaṭa‛, ?to cut off?; ποίμνη, poı́mnē (Mat_26:31): ?The sheep of the flock shall be scattered,? and (Luk_2:8): ?keeping watch by night over their flock?; ποίμνιον, poı́mnion (Luk_12:32): ?Fear not, little flock,? and (1Pe_5:2): ?Tend the flock of God which is among you.?
Figurative: Not only poimnē and poimnion but also ר, 'edher and נ, co'n are used figuratively of God's people; e.g. Isa_40:11 : ?He will feed his flock (‛ēdher) like a shepherd?; Zec_10:3 : ?Yahweh of hosts hath visited his flock (['edher), the house of Judah?; Isa_65:10 : ?And Sharon shall be a fold of flocks? (cō'n); Jer_23:2 : ?Ye have scattered my flock? (cō'n); Eze_34:22 : ?Therefore will I save my flock? (cō'n); Mic_7:14 : ?Feed ... the flock (cō'n) of thy heritage.?
The wild ox or wild bull, the Revised Version (British and American) ?antelope? (te ō or tō of Deu_14:5 and Isa_51:20), is considered by the writer to be probably the Arabian oryx, and in this he is in agreement with Tristram (NHB). Tristram however thinks that the unicorn (rēm or re'ēm), the Revised Version (British and American) ?wild ox,? was the aurochs, while the present writer believes that this also may well have been the oryx, which at the present day has at least three names in Arabic, one of which, baḳar-ul-waḥsh, means ?wild ox.? See ANTELOPE.
Our domestic cattle are believed by some of the best authorities to be of the same species as the ancient European wild ox or aurochs, Bos taurus, which is by others counted as a distinct species under the title of Bos primigenius. The aurochs was widely spread over Europe in Roman times, but is now extinct. Some degenerate wild cattle are preserved in some British parks, but these according to Lydekker in the Royal Natural History are probably feral descendants of early domestic breeds. Tristram cites the occurrence in the Dog River bone breccia of teeth which may be those of the aurochs, but this is a deposit accumulated by prehistoric man of an unknown antiquity to be variously estimated according to the predilections of the geologist at a few thousands or a few score of thousands of years, and is far from proving that this animal existed in Palestine in Bible times or at any time.
The European bison (Bos or Bison bonassus) is thought by some to be the wild ox of the Bible. This is a forest-dwelling species and is now confined to the forests of Lithuania and the Caucasus. It was formerly more widely distributed, but there is no certain evidence that it ever lived as far South as Palestine, and there have probably never existed in Palestine forests suitable to be the haunts of this animal.
About the Sea of Tiberias and the Jordan valley and in the plain of Coele-Syria there exist today Indian buffaloes (Bos bubalus) some feral and some in a state of domestication, which are believed to have been introduced in comparatively recent times. See BEAST; CALF.
International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
PRINTER 1915.
Cattle [BEASTS]
The Popular Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature
by John Kitto.
Psa_50:10 (b) This represents the great wealth and resources of GOD which are for the blessing of His people.
Isa_43:23 (b) This tells us that GOD notices when even the smallest offerings are not brought to Him.
Jon_4:11 (c) This indicates that GOD cares for everything that He has made.
Wilson's Dictionary of Bible Types
press 1957.
Cattle
(the representative in various passages in the A.V. of the Hebrews words . בְּהֵמָה, behemah´, a large quadruped in general, usually "beast", SEE BEHEMOTH; in Num_20:4, and Psa_78:48, בְּעַיר, beïr´, grazing animals, elsewhere "beast;" so the Gr. βοσκήματα, as beingfd, 2Ma_12:11, or θρέμματα, from being reared, Joh_4:12; most frequently and characteristically מַקְנֶה, mikneh´, apossession, as sometimes rendered-from the fact that Oriental wealth ["substance," Job_1:3; Job_1:10] largely consisted in this kind of property; like the Gr. κτήνη, as being possessed, 1Ma_12:23; also idiomatically, שֶׂה, seh, Gen_30:32; Isa_7:25; Isa_43:23; Eze_34:17; Eze_34:20; Eze_34:22, an individual sheep or limb, as elsewhere rendered; or צאֹן, tson, Gen_30:39-43; Gen_31:8; Gen_31:10; Gen_31:12; Gen_31:41; Gen_31:43; Ecc_2:7, sheep collectively or a flock, as rendered elsewhere), in scriptural usage, embraces the tame quadrupeds employed by mankind for domestic purposes, as oxen, buffaloes, horses, sheep, goats, camels, and asses (Gen_1:25; Gen_13:2; Gen_32:13-17; Ezekiel 12:29; Eze_34:19; Num_20:19; Num_32:16; Psa_50:10). See each of these in their alphabetical place.
The Holy Land was eminently distinguished for its abundance of cattle, to the management and rearing of which the inhabitants, from the earliest times, chiefly applied themselves, as indeed they have always constituted the principal and almost only possession of a nomade race. In this case, wealthy people were exposed to all the vicissitudes of the seasons (Gen_31:40). Moses was a shepherd during his exile, Shamgar was taken from the herd to be. a judge in Israel, and Gideon from his threshing- floor (Jdg_6:11), as were Jair and Jephthah from the keeping of sheep; Saul and David might also be mentioned. Some of the prophets were called from that employment to the prophetic dignity, as Elisha was from the plough (1Ki_19:19), and Amos from being a herdsman. But the tending of flocks was not confined to the men. Rachel, the daughter of Laban, kept her father's sheep (Gen_29:9), and Zipporah and her six sisters had the care of their father Jethro's flocks, who was a prince or priest of Midian (Exo_2:16). The following is a general treatment of the subject under its two great sections. SEE HERD; SEE FLOCK.
I. Neat Cattle. These are designated collectively by the Hebrews term בָּקָר, bakar; single animals of this kind are called אִלּוּ, alluph', an "ox," or שׁוֹר, shor (Chald. תּוֹר, tor), a "bullock;" the calves are styled עֵגֶל, e'gel, often a yearling fem. עֶגְלָה eglah´, a "heifer" (also a young cow, even when broken to the yoke, Jdg_14:18; Hos_10:11); when grown, but still in full youthful vigor, פָּר, par, a steer fem. פָּרָה, .parah´, a heifer (juvencus, juvenca; comp. Varro, Res Rust. 2:5, 8). The nomadic Abrahamidma (like the Homeric chiefs, see Feith, Antiq. Hom. p. 405) already practiced the raising of cattle (Gen_12:16; Gen_18:7; Gen_24:35; Gen_32:5; Gen_34:28; comp. Gen_13:5), and when they emigrated into Egypt still carried it on (Exo_10:9; Exo_10:24; Exo_12:32 sq.). In later times, also, this was a principal pursuit of the Israelites, especially in several districts of Palestine (Deu_8:13; Deu_12:21; 1Sa_11:5; 1Sa_12:3; 2Sa_12:2; Psa_144:14; Jer_3:24; Jer_5:11; Jdt_8:6, etc.). The oxen are there somewhat small, with short horns, and a bunch ,of fat on the shoulders (Hasselquist, Travels, p. 180; comp. Shaw, Travels, p. 150). The finest herds and strongest bullocks were found in Bashan, beyond Jordan (Num_32:4); hence the Bashanite steers are often put metaphorically for formidable enemies (Psa_22:13), while Bashanite cows are a symbol of stately women (Amo_1:4). In the district west of the Jordan, the plain of Sharon, extending to the Mediterranean Sea, afforded the finest pastures (Isa_65:10; see Jerome in loc.).
Even the kings had their herdsmen (1 Chronicles 28:29). There was great demand for neat cattle; many hundreds were yearly slaughtered in sacrifice (and these were animals of the finest quality, as among other nations, see Herod. 2:41; Xenoph. Cyrop. 8:31; Varro, Res Rust. 2:5, 11; Pliny, 8:10, etc.), others were employed for food or festive occasions (Deu_12:21; 2Sa_12:4; Tob_8:21; Mat_23:4), as then generally beef (1Sa_14:32; 1Ki_19:21; comp. 4:23; Neh_5:18), and still oftener veal was a feast to the Israelites (Gen_18:7; 1Sa_28:24; Amo_6:4; Luk_15:23; Luk_15:27; Luk_15:30), it being anciently regarded as an act of wanton prodigality to slay useful agricultural beasts (compare Apollon. Rhod. 2:655 sq.) in order to enjoy their flesh (AElian, Var. Hist. 5:14; Anim. 12:34; Varro, R. R. 2:5, 6; Pliny, Hist. Nat. 8:70; Valer. Max. 8:1; Cic. Nat. Deor. 2:65). SEE FOOD. The milk was used either sweet or curdled, and was made also into cheese. SEE MILK; SEE CHEESE; SEE BUTTER. Cattle were yoked to the plough (Deu_22:10; 1Ki_19:19 sq.; Isa_30:24; Amo_6:12; Job_1:14; comp. Jdg_14:18; Josephus, Ant. 12:4, 6), likewise for draught (Num_7:3; Num_7:7; 1Sa_6:7; 2Sa_6:3; 2Sa_6:6), and were sometimes employed for burdens (1Ch_12:40; comp. AElian, Anim. 7:4), but especially for threshing (comp. Baba Mezia, 6:4; Chelim, 16:7). SEE AGRICULTURE. They were driven (Jdg_3:31; 1Sa_13:21; compare Sir_38:25; Act_9:5) with a pointed stick (מִלְמָד, malmad´, or דָּרְבָּן, dorban,; κέντρον or βούκεντρον, also βουπλήξ) in Iliad, 6:135, Lat. stimulus [comp. Schol. ad Pindar, Pyth. 2:173]), an instrument employed also for horses (Ovid, Metam. 2:127; see Schöttgen, De stimulo bourn, Frcf. a V. 1717). SEE GOAD. During summer cattle ranged under the open sky. In the stalls (2Ch_32:28) their fodder (Pro_14:4; Luk_13:15) was placed in a crib (אֵבוּס, ebus'; φάτνη). Besides fresh grass and meadow-plants. (Dan_4:29; Num_22:4), meslin (בְּלַיל, belil´, Job_6:5; Isa_30:24; תֶּבֶן, te´ben, Isa_11:7) is mentioned as provender of cattle, a mixed food, like the Roman farrago (Gesenius, Thesaur. p. 212). That salt (to gratify the appetite) was" added may be inferred from Isa_30:24 (see Gesenius in loc.). SEE SALT. Cattle were greatly annoyed by insects, and perhaps the קֶרֶוֹ, ke´rets (A. V. "destruction"), of Jer_46:20, indicates some sort of such noxious creature, namely, the gadfly or aestrus (see Hitzig in loc.; otherwise Gesenius in loc.). SEE BEEVE. In the Mosaic law the following enactments relate especially to oxen:
1. The mouth of the threshing-cattle was not to be- bound so as to prevent their eating the provender spread under them (compare Burckhardt, Proverbs, p. 67). SEE MUZZLE. Hence the term "threshing oxen" sometimes stands for fat or well-conditioned animals (Jeremiah 1, 11; see Rosenmüller in loc.).
2. Whoever stole and then sold or slaughtered an ox must give five oxen in satisfaction (Exo_22:1); but if the animal was found alive in the possession of the thief, he was merely required to make double restitution (Exo_22:4). SEE THEFT.
3. Whoever met an ox that had fallen or strayed was under obligation immediately to help it up and bring it back to the owner (Exo_23:4; Deu_22:1; Deu_22:4), an injunction the more needful in a country not only thinly inhabited, but intersected by many desert tracts. SEE PALESTINE.
4. An ox and an ass must not be yoked together to the plough (Deu_22:10). This prohibition is evidently akin to those relating to heterogeneous combinations, although Michaelis (Mos. Recht, 3:149) gives it another interpretation. SEE DIVERSE. Respecting unruly cattle (Exo_21:28 sq.), SEE DAMAGES. It was considered unmerciful to take the only beast of a widow in pawn (Job_24:3). SEE DEBT. On the subject generally, see Bochart, Hieroz. 1:268 sq.; Ugolino, De Re Rust. Hebr. (in his Thesaur. 19), 2:9 sq. For the symbolical worship of the young bull, SEE CALF, GOLDEN. Compare BEAST.
II. Small Cattle:
1. Sheep. These are designated collectively by צאֹן, tson (a general term, like μῆλον and pecus, including also goats), singly by שֶׂה, seh; while רָחֵל, rachel´, means ewe; אִיַל, a´yil, wether (Chald. דְּכִר, dekar´); כִּר, Kar, a fat pasture lamb; כֶּבֶשׂ, ke´bes, a lamb of one to three years (comp. Gesen.´ Thes. p. 659); טָלֶה, taleh´ (or טְלַי, tell´), a suckling or milk- lamb; מַשְׁנַים, mishnim´ ("fatlings," 1Sa_15:9), is an obscure term, possibly signifying two-year-old lambs (oves secundarias, Columella, Res Rust. 7:3; comp. Bochart, Hieroz. 1:469). Next to neat herds, sheep formed the most important staple of Oriental nomadic pursuits in Aramaea (Genesis 29, 30) and Palestine (Gen_12:16; Gen_13:5; Gen_20:14; Gen_21:27; Gen_24:35; Gen_32:5; Gen_34:28), as in Egypt (Gen_47:17; Exo_9:3), Arabia Petraea and Deserta (Exo_2:16; Exo_2:19; Exo_3:1; Num_31:32; Isa_34:6; Isa_60:7), and Moabitis (2 Kings, in, 4; Isa_16:1). In military feuds between such tribes, we always find sheep mentioned among the booty of the victors (Num_31:32; Jos_6:21; 1Sa_14:32; 1Sa_15:3 sq.; 1Sa_27:9; 1Ch_5:21, etc.). The same is still universally true of modern Bedouin Arabs, whose traffic in sheep (comp. Eze_26:21) is their leading mark of prosperity and even opulence (comp. Arvieux, 3:132). The patriarchs had large flocks of sheep in Palestine, as later in Egypt or Goshen (Exo_10:9; Exo_10:24; compare Hengstenberg, Pent. p. 5 sq.); also upon the occupation of Canaan by the Israelites, sheep-breeding continued to be the chief employment of a large part of the population down to the latest period, being carried on amid the numerous open tracts and hills of the country (Isa_7:25), many of which were productive of saline plants (comp. Deu_7:1-3; Deu_8:13; Deu_28:4; Jdg_6:4; 1Sa_22:19; 2Sa_12:2; Pro_27:23; Ecc_2:7; Jer_3:24; Jer_5:17; Hos_5:6; Joe_1:18; Jdt_8:6, etc.). There were rich owners of flecks (1Sa_25:2; 2Sa_12:2; comp. Job_1:3; Job_42:12), and even kings had their shepherds (1Ch_27:31; Amo_7:1; compare 2Ch_32:28), from whom they derived a revenue of sheep and wool as presents (2Sa_17:29; 1Ch_12:40) or tribute (2Ki_3:4; Isa_16:1). Among the regions most favorable for sheep- rearing are mentioned the plain of Sharon (Isa_65:10), Matthew Carmel (Mic_7:14), Bashan (Ezekiel 39), and Gilead (Micah 50, 100.). The sheep in the patriarchal age were tended oftentimes by the daughters of the owners (Gen_29:9; compare Exo_2:16); later by overseers or hired men (Joh_10:12); sometimes by the sons of the family (1Sa_16:11; 1Sa_17:15). SEE SHEPHERD.
The keepers gave their sheep, especially the bell-wethers, regular names (Joh_10:3; compare Theocr. 5:102 sq.; Aristot. Anim. 6:16; Longin. Pastor. 5:17 and 19), and familiarized these animals with their voice so as to follow them (comp. 2Sa_12:2). The sheep roamed all summer in the open air, being folded only at night (Num_32:16; 2Ch_32:28) in a pen (גְּדֵרָה, gederah´; Talmud, דור), where, in exposed positions, they were guarded by sentries (Luk_2:8). In the daytime they appear to have been sometimes sheltered from the heat of the sun in caverns (כְּרוֹת, Zep_2:6; which, however, according to others, signifies only pits, i.e. cisterns for watering the sheep). Shepherds' dogs were indispensable (Job_30:1). Of the young, which sheep bear twice a year, the autumn lambs were considered the more vigorous (Varro, Res Rust. 2:2, 18; Colum. R. R. 7:3; Pliny, 8:72; comp. Hamaker, Miscell. Phoenic. p. 117 sq.). The flesh of the sheep, especially that of wethers and lambs, was, as with modern Arabs (Wellsted, Trav. p. 121), a highly esteemed food (1Sa_25:18; Isa_22:13; Amo_6:4; Tob_7:9; Tob_8:21), and was essential to a well-spread board (1Ki_4:23; Nehemiah v. 18). The milk of sheep was also an article of culinary use (Deu_32:14; comp. Diod. Sic. 1:18; Pliny 28:33; Strabo, 17:835; Colum. R. R. 7:2; Dioscor. 2:75). Sheep, especially lambs and rams (q.v.), were a prominent animal in sacrifices (q.v.), and a stock of them was often sacrilegiously offered for sale in the Jewish temple (Joh_2:14). The wool (צֶמֶר, tse´mer, or גֵּז, gez), which, on account of the pasturing of the flock under the open sky, attained a high degree of fineness (as in Spain), was wrought into garments (Lev_13:47; Deu_22:11; Eze_34:3; Job_31:20; Pro_27:26; Pro_31:13), and the Israelites were obliged to pay tithes of this product (Deu_18:4). Sheep- shearing (Gen_38:12) was a rural festive occasion (1Sa_25:4; 2Sa_13:23). As enemies of the shepherd are named the lion (Mic_5:7), the bear (1Sa_17:34) and the wolf (Sir_13:21; Mat_10:16; Joh_10:12; conip. Isa_11:6; Isa_65:25), which might easily carry off a single animal in the extensive and solitary pastures, although even this was often rescued by the sheep-tender (1Sa_17:34 sq.). SEE LION.
The sheep were very liable also to stray in the wide pasturages (Psa_109:17; Isa_53:6; Hos_4:16; Mat_18:12). On the "rot," or disease peculiar to flocks, see Bochart, 1:596; Aristot. Anim. 9:3. The color of sheep is in the East generally white (Psa_147:16; Isa_1:18; Dan_7:9; Son_6:5; Rev_1:14; comp. Eze_27:18); although black (חוּם, dusky, Gen_30:32) ones are also found (Colum. R. R. 7:2; Pliny, 8:73; comp. Wellsted, 1:213; Ruppell, Abyssin. 2:21), as well as spotted and grizzled (Gen_30:32), peculiarities which shepherds knew how to produce artificially (Gen_30:37 sq.; Strabo, 10:449; Pliny, 31:9; comp. Rosselini, Monum. Civil. 1:246). See JACOB. A peculiar species of sheep (Ovis laticaudata, Linn.) is found in the East, with a long fat tail (אִלְיָה, ayah´, Arab. alyat, A. V. "rump;" Lev_3:9; Lev_7:3; Lev_8:25; Lev_9:19) of 10 to 15, and sometimes 40 to 50 pounds' weight, turned up at the end, and often drawn by the animal upon a board or small two-wheeled cart (Herod. 3:113; Aristot. Anim. 8:28; Pliny, 8:75; Died. Sic. 2:54; AElian, Anm. 3:3; 10:4; Olear. Persian. 5:8; Kampfer, Amoen. p. 506 sq.; Lucas, Reise nach d. Levante, p. 183; Russel, Aleppo, 2:8; Descript. de l'Egypte, 23:197 sq.; Oedman, Samml. 4:75 sq.; comp. Korte, Reise, p. 429; Robinson, Res. 2:169, 180; Schubert, 3:118). That the same contrivance was customary with the Jews may be seen from the Mishna (Shabb. 5:4). This kind of sheep is farther distinguished from the common species of the Bedouins by its turned-up nose, and long, pendent ears. On the Mosaic enactments respecting the rights of property in sheep ( Exodus 22; Deuteronomy 22), see above. Compare generally Bochart, Hieroz. 1:451 sq.; Michaelis, Verm. Schrift. 1:118 sq. In Daniel 8 the Persian empire (king) is personified by a ram. SEE PERSIA. On this figure (which represents the subjects as a flock), see Lengerke, Daniel, p. 365 sq. SEE SHEEP.
2. Goats. This kind of stock is usually classed with sheep under the word צאֹן, tson, or (when a single head is intended) שֶׂה, seh, and thus associated with neat cattle, בָּקָרbakar´ (as in Hem. μῆλα, then βόες). The terms for goats individually are: עֵן, ez, a he-goat; שְׂעַירִת עַזִּים, seïrath´ izzim´ (shaggy female of the goats), a she-goat; for the buck, more distinctively, there are several terms: תִּיַשׁ, ta´yish; עִתּוּד, attud´; שָׂעַיר, saïr´ (more fully שְׂעַיר עַזַּים, seïr´ izzim´, i.e. shaggy male of the goats); צְפַיר, tsephir´; גְּדַי, gedi´, is a collective term. Goats were reared by the early patriarchs (Gen_15:9; Gen_32:14; Gen_37:31), as by the modern Bedouins; and in later times they also formed an important element (in all the hilly regions of Palestine) of agricultural wealth (comp. 1Sa_25:2; Son_6:5; Pro_27:26; see Eze_27:21). They were used not only for sacrifice, but also for food (Deu_14:4; comp. Buckingham, 2:67; Robinson, 1:342; Wellsted, p. 406), especially the young males (Gen_27:9; Gen_27:14; Gen_27:17; Jdg_6:19; Jdg_13:15; 1Sa_16:20), as still in the East (Russel, Aleppo, 2:23). The milk of goats was also an article of food (Pro_27:27), being more wholesome than that of sheep (Pliny, 28:33; comp. Bochart, Hieroz. 1:717; Prosp. Alpin. Res AEgypt. p. 229). Goat-skins were only employed as clothing by poor persons, or such as chose to wear mean apparel (Heb_11:37). They were generally made into water or wine casks. SEE BOTTLE.
Goat's hair was often the material of tent-cloth (Exo_26:7; Exo_36:14; comp. Della Valle, Trav. 1:206; Arvieux, in, 226; Volney, 1:303; Thevenot, in, 196), as well as of matresses and bedding (1Sa_19:13; 1Sa_19:16; but see on this passage Kolkar, Quaest. Bibl. spec. 2:56 sq.), and frequently of cloaks (Robinson, 1:279). SEE TENT; SEE BOLSTER; SEE CLOTHING. The goats of the nomadic Arabs are generally black; but in Syria (Russel, ut sup.; Thevenot, 2:196; Russegger, 1:712) and Lower Egypt (Sonini, 1:329) there are found goats of a large size, like the European, with hanging ears (often a foot or more in length), and of a bright red color: this species is called Capra Mambrica. Whether the Angora goat (Capra Angorensis of Linn.) (see Hasselquist, p. 285; Tournefort, 3:488; Schubert, 1:379), whose long, soft, silky hair is made into the well-known "'camlet" stuff, was also indigenous to Palestine (Schulz, Leit. 5:28, will have it found on Lebanon), is undetermined; it is possibly that referred to in Son_6:5. On the Mosaic enactment respecting the cooking of a kid in its mother's milk (Exo_23:19; Exo_34:26; Deu_14:21), SEE KID. The symbol of the Macedonian (Alexander's) empire by a hegoat (צְפַיר הָעַזַּים) in Dan_8:5 sq., may be illustrated by the epithet AEgean (Αἰγεάδες, q. d. goatmen), applied to the Greek colonies on that part of the Mediterranean Sea (comp. Justin. 7:1, 7). SEE MACEDONIA. See generally Bochart, Hieroz. 1:703. On the Syrian wild goats, SEE IBEX. SEE GOAT.
CYCLOPEDIA OF BIBLICAL, THEOLOGICAL AND ECCLESIASTICAL
press 1895.
E. W. G. Masterman.
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible
Edited by James Hastings, D.D. Published in 1909
Cattle. See Bull.
Smith's Bible Dictionary
By Dr. William Smith.Published in 1863
kat?'l (בּהמה, behēmāh, ?a dumb beast?; מקנה, miḳneh, ?a possession? from קנה, ḳānāh, ?to acquire? (compare Arabic ḳana), ?to acquire,? and Greek κτῆνος, ktḗnos, ?beast,? and plural κτήνεα, ktḗnea, ?flocks,? from κτάομαι, ktáomai, ?to acquire,? flocks being both with the Homeric peoples and with the patriarchs an important form of property; compare English ?fee?); צאן, cō'n ?small cattle,? ?sheep? or goats (compare Arabic ḍa'n, ?sheep?); שׂה, seh, a single sheep or goat (compare Arabic shāh); מלאכה, melā'khāh, ?property,? from לאך, lā'akh, ?to minister? (compare Arabic malākah and mulk, ?property,? from malak, ?to possess?); מריא, merı̄' ?fatling? (1 Ki 19); θρέμμα, thrémma (Joh_4:12), ?cattle,? i.e. ?that which is nourished,? from τρέφω, tréphō, ?to nourish?; בּקר, bāḳār, ?kine,? ?oxen? (compare Arabic baḳar, ?cattle?); שׁור, shōr, תּור, tōr (Dan_4:25), ταῦρος, taúros (Mat_22:4), ?ox? or ?bull?; βοῦς, boús, ?ox? (Luk_13:15); אלף, 'eleph, only in the plural, אלפים, 'ălāphı̄m, ?oxen? (Psa_8:7)): From the foregoing and by examination of the many references to ?cattle,? ?kine? or ?oxen? it is apparent that there are important points of contact in derivation and usage in the Hebrew, Greek and English terms. It is evident that neat cattle were possessed in abundance by the patriarchs and later Israelites, which is fax from being the case in Palestine at the present day. The Bedouin usually have no cattle. The fellāḥı̄n in most parts of the country keep them in small numbers, mostly for plowing, and but little for milk or for slaughtering. Travelers in the Holy Land realize that goat's milk is in most places easier to obtain than cow's milk. The commonest cattle of the fellachin are a small black breed. In the vicinity of Damascus are many large, fine milch cattle which furnish the delicious milk and cream of the Damascus bazaars. For some reason, probably because they are not confined and highly fed, the bulls of Palestine are meek creatures as compared with their European or American fellows.
In English Versions of the Bible the word ?cattle? is more often used in a wide sense to include sheep and goats than to denote merely neat cattle. In fact, bāḳār, which distinctively denotes neat cattle, is often rendered ?herds,? as cō'n, literally ?sheep,? is in a large number of instances translated ?flocks.? A good illustration is found in Gen_32:7 : ?Then Jacob ... divided the, people (‛ām) that were with him, and the flocks (cō'n), and the herds (bāḳār), and the camels (gemallı̄m), into two companies (maḥănōth).? For the last word the King James Version has ?drove? in Gen_33:8, the Revised Version (British and American) ?company.? Next to cō'n, the word most commonly rendered ?flock? in English Versions of the Bible is ‛ēdher, from root ?to arrange,? ?to set in order.? ‛Ēdher is rendered ?herd? in Pro_27:23, and in Joe_1:18 it occurs twice, being rendered ?herds of cattle,? ‛edhrē bāḳār, and ?flocks of sheep,? ‛edhrē ha-cō'ň. Miḳneh is rendered ?flock? in Num_32:26, ?herd? in Gen_47:18, and ?cattle? in a large number of passages. Other words rendered ?flock? are: mar‛ı̄th (r, rā‛āh (Arabic ra‛a), ?to pasture?), once in Jer_10:21; 'ashterōth cō'n, ?flocks of thy sheep,? the Revised Version (British and American) ?young of thy flock,? in Deu_7:13, etc., ‛ashtārōth being plural of ‛ashtōreth, or Ashtoreth; ḥāsı̄ph, once in 1Ki_20:27 : ?The Children of Israel encamped before them (the Syrians) like two little flocks of kids,? ḥāsı̄ph signifying ?something stripped off or separated,? from root ḥāsaph, ?to strip? or ?to peel,? like the Arabic ḳaṭı̄‛, ?flock,? from root ḳaṭa‛, ?to cut off?; ποίμνη, poı́mnē (Mat_26:31): ?The sheep of the flock shall be scattered,? and (Luk_2:8): ?keeping watch by night over their flock?; ποίμνιον, poı́mnion (Luk_12:32): ?Fear not, little flock,? and (1Pe_5:2): ?Tend the flock of God which is among you.?
Figurative: Not only poimnē and poimnion but also ר, 'edher and נ, co'n are used figuratively of God's people; e.g. Isa_40:11 : ?He will feed his flock (‛ēdher) like a shepherd?; Zec_10:3 : ?Yahweh of hosts hath visited his flock (['edher), the house of Judah?; Isa_65:10 : ?And Sharon shall be a fold of flocks? (cō'n); Jer_23:2 : ?Ye have scattered my flock? (cō'n); Eze_34:22 : ?Therefore will I save my flock? (cō'n); Mic_7:14 : ?Feed ... the flock (cō'n) of thy heritage.?
The wild ox or wild bull, the Revised Version (British and American) ?antelope? (te ō or tō of Deu_14:5 and Isa_51:20), is considered by the writer to be probably the Arabian oryx, and in this he is in agreement with Tristram (NHB). Tristram however thinks that the unicorn (rēm or re'ēm), the Revised Version (British and American) ?wild ox,? was the aurochs, while the present writer believes that this also may well have been the oryx, which at the present day has at least three names in Arabic, one of which, baḳar-ul-waḥsh, means ?wild ox.? See ANTELOPE.
Our domestic cattle are believed by some of the best authorities to be of the same species as the ancient European wild ox or aurochs, Bos taurus, which is by others counted as a distinct species under the title of Bos primigenius. The aurochs was widely spread over Europe in Roman times, but is now extinct. Some degenerate wild cattle are preserved in some British parks, but these according to Lydekker in the Royal Natural History are probably feral descendants of early domestic breeds. Tristram cites the occurrence in the Dog River bone breccia of teeth which may be those of the aurochs, but this is a deposit accumulated by prehistoric man of an unknown antiquity to be variously estimated according to the predilections of the geologist at a few thousands or a few score of thousands of years, and is far from proving that this animal existed in Palestine in Bible times or at any time.
The European bison (Bos or Bison bonassus) is thought by some to be the wild ox of the Bible. This is a forest-dwelling species and is now confined to the forests of Lithuania and the Caucasus. It was formerly more widely distributed, but there is no certain evidence that it ever lived as far South as Palestine, and there have probably never existed in Palestine forests suitable to be the haunts of this animal.
About the Sea of Tiberias and the Jordan valley and in the plain of Coele-Syria there exist today Indian buffaloes (Bos bubalus) some feral and some in a state of domestication, which are believed to have been introduced in comparatively recent times. See BEAST; CALF.
International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
PRINTER 1915.
Cattle [BEASTS]
The Popular Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature
by John Kitto.
Psa_50:10 (b) This represents the great wealth and resources of GOD which are for the blessing of His people.
Isa_43:23 (b) This tells us that GOD notices when even the smallest offerings are not brought to Him.
Jon_4:11 (c) This indicates that GOD cares for everything that He has made.
Wilson's Dictionary of Bible Types
press 1957.
Cattle
(the representative in various passages in the A.V. of the Hebrews words . בְּהֵמָה, behemah´, a large quadruped in general, usually "beast", SEE BEHEMOTH; in Num_20:4, and Psa_78:48, בְּעַיר, beïr´, grazing animals, elsewhere "beast;" so the Gr. βοσκήματα, as beingfd, 2Ma_12:11, or θρέμματα, from being reared, Joh_4:12; most frequently and characteristically מַקְנֶה, mikneh´, apossession, as sometimes rendered-from the fact that Oriental wealth ["substance," Job_1:3; Job_1:10] largely consisted in this kind of property; like the Gr. κτήνη, as being possessed, 1Ma_12:23; also idiomatically, שֶׂה, seh, Gen_30:32; Isa_7:25; Isa_43:23; Eze_34:17; Eze_34:20; Eze_34:22, an individual sheep or limb, as elsewhere rendered; or צאֹן, tson, Gen_30:39-43; Gen_31:8; Gen_31:10; Gen_31:12; Gen_31:41; Gen_31:43; Ecc_2:7, sheep collectively or a flock, as rendered elsewhere), in scriptural usage, embraces the tame quadrupeds employed by mankind for domestic purposes, as oxen, buffaloes, horses, sheep, goats, camels, and asses (Gen_1:25; Gen_13:2; Gen_32:13-17; Ezekiel 12:29; Eze_34:19; Num_20:19; Num_32:16; Psa_50:10). See each of these in their alphabetical place.
The Holy Land was eminently distinguished for its abundance of cattle, to the management and rearing of which the inhabitants, from the earliest times, chiefly applied themselves, as indeed they have always constituted the principal and almost only possession of a nomade race. In this case, wealthy people were exposed to all the vicissitudes of the seasons (Gen_31:40). Moses was a shepherd during his exile, Shamgar was taken from the herd to be. a judge in Israel, and Gideon from his threshing- floor (Jdg_6:11), as were Jair and Jephthah from the keeping of sheep; Saul and David might also be mentioned. Some of the prophets were called from that employment to the prophetic dignity, as Elisha was from the plough (1Ki_19:19), and Amos from being a herdsman. But the tending of flocks was not confined to the men. Rachel, the daughter of Laban, kept her father's sheep (Gen_29:9), and Zipporah and her six sisters had the care of their father Jethro's flocks, who was a prince or priest of Midian (Exo_2:16). The following is a general treatment of the subject under its two great sections. SEE HERD; SEE FLOCK.
I. Neat Cattle. These are designated collectively by the Hebrews term בָּקָר, bakar; single animals of this kind are called אִלּוּ, alluph', an "ox," or שׁוֹר, shor (Chald. תּוֹר, tor), a "bullock;" the calves are styled עֵגֶל, e'gel, often a yearling fem. עֶגְלָה eglah´, a "heifer" (also a young cow, even when broken to the yoke, Jdg_14:18; Hos_10:11); when grown, but still in full youthful vigor, פָּר, par, a steer fem. פָּרָה, .parah´, a heifer (juvencus, juvenca; comp. Varro, Res Rust. 2:5, 8). The nomadic Abrahamidma (like the Homeric chiefs, see Feith, Antiq. Hom. p. 405) already practiced the raising of cattle (Gen_12:16; Gen_18:7; Gen_24:35; Gen_32:5; Gen_34:28; comp. Gen_13:5), and when they emigrated into Egypt still carried it on (Exo_10:9; Exo_10:24; Exo_12:32 sq.). In later times, also, this was a principal pursuit of the Israelites, especially in several districts of Palestine (Deu_8:13; Deu_12:21; 1Sa_11:5; 1Sa_12:3; 2Sa_12:2; Psa_144:14; Jer_3:24; Jer_5:11; Jdt_8:6, etc.). The oxen are there somewhat small, with short horns, and a bunch ,of fat on the shoulders (Hasselquist, Travels, p. 180; comp. Shaw, Travels, p. 150). The finest herds and strongest bullocks were found in Bashan, beyond Jordan (Num_32:4); hence the Bashanite steers are often put metaphorically for formidable enemies (Psa_22:13), while Bashanite cows are a symbol of stately women (Amo_1:4). In the district west of the Jordan, the plain of Sharon, extending to the Mediterranean Sea, afforded the finest pastures (Isa_65:10; see Jerome in loc.).
Even the kings had their herdsmen (1 Chronicles 28:29). There was great demand for neat cattle; many hundreds were yearly slaughtered in sacrifice (and these were animals of the finest quality, as among other nations, see Herod. 2:41; Xenoph. Cyrop. 8:31; Varro, Res Rust. 2:5, 11; Pliny, 8:10, etc.), others were employed for food or festive occasions (Deu_12:21; 2Sa_12:4; Tob_8:21; Mat_23:4), as then generally beef (1Sa_14:32; 1Ki_19:21; comp. 4:23; Neh_5:18), and still oftener veal was a feast to the Israelites (Gen_18:7; 1Sa_28:24; Amo_6:4; Luk_15:23; Luk_15:27; Luk_15:30), it being anciently regarded as an act of wanton prodigality to slay useful agricultural beasts (compare Apollon. Rhod. 2:655 sq.) in order to enjoy their flesh (AElian, Var. Hist. 5:14; Anim. 12:34; Varro, R. R. 2:5, 6; Pliny, Hist. Nat. 8:70; Valer. Max. 8:1; Cic. Nat. Deor. 2:65). SEE FOOD. The milk was used either sweet or curdled, and was made also into cheese. SEE MILK; SEE CHEESE; SEE BUTTER. Cattle were yoked to the plough (Deu_22:10; 1Ki_19:19 sq.; Isa_30:24; Amo_6:12; Job_1:14; comp. Jdg_14:18; Josephus, Ant. 12:4, 6), likewise for draught (Num_7:3; Num_7:7; 1Sa_6:7; 2Sa_6:3; 2Sa_6:6), and were sometimes employed for burdens (1Ch_12:40; comp. AElian, Anim. 7:4), but especially for threshing (comp. Baba Mezia, 6:4; Chelim, 16:7). SEE AGRICULTURE. They were driven (Jdg_3:31; 1Sa_13:21; compare Sir_38:25; Act_9:5) with a pointed stick (מִלְמָד, malmad´, or דָּרְבָּן, dorban,; κέντρον or βούκεντρον, also βουπλήξ) in Iliad, 6:135, Lat. stimulus [comp. Schol. ad Pindar, Pyth. 2:173]), an instrument employed also for horses (Ovid, Metam. 2:127; see Schöttgen, De stimulo bourn, Frcf. a V. 1717). SEE GOAD. During summer cattle ranged under the open sky. In the stalls (2Ch_32:28) their fodder (Pro_14:4; Luk_13:15) was placed in a crib (אֵבוּס, ebus'; φάτνη). Besides fresh grass and meadow-plants. (Dan_4:29; Num_22:4), meslin (בְּלַיל, belil´, Job_6:5; Isa_30:24; תֶּבֶן, te´ben, Isa_11:7) is mentioned as provender of cattle, a mixed food, like the Roman farrago (Gesenius, Thesaur. p. 212). That salt (to gratify the appetite) was" added may be inferred from Isa_30:24 (see Gesenius in loc.). SEE SALT. Cattle were greatly annoyed by insects, and perhaps the קֶרֶוֹ, ke´rets (A. V. "destruction"), of Jer_46:20, indicates some sort of such noxious creature, namely, the gadfly or aestrus (see Hitzig in loc.; otherwise Gesenius in loc.). SEE BEEVE. In the Mosaic law the following enactments relate especially to oxen:
1. The mouth of the threshing-cattle was not to be- bound so as to prevent their eating the provender spread under them (compare Burckhardt, Proverbs, p. 67). SEE MUZZLE. Hence the term "threshing oxen" sometimes stands for fat or well-conditioned animals (Jeremiah 1, 11; see Rosenmüller in loc.).
2. Whoever stole and then sold or slaughtered an ox must give five oxen in satisfaction (Exo_22:1); but if the animal was found alive in the possession of the thief, he was merely required to make double restitution (Exo_22:4). SEE THEFT.
3. Whoever met an ox that had fallen or strayed was under obligation immediately to help it up and bring it back to the owner (Exo_23:4; Deu_22:1; Deu_22:4), an injunction the more needful in a country not only thinly inhabited, but intersected by many desert tracts. SEE PALESTINE.
4. An ox and an ass must not be yoked together to the plough (Deu_22:10). This prohibition is evidently akin to those relating to heterogeneous combinations, although Michaelis (Mos. Recht, 3:149) gives it another interpretation. SEE DIVERSE. Respecting unruly cattle (Exo_21:28 sq.), SEE DAMAGES. It was considered unmerciful to take the only beast of a widow in pawn (Job_24:3). SEE DEBT. On the subject generally, see Bochart, Hieroz. 1:268 sq.; Ugolino, De Re Rust. Hebr. (in his Thesaur. 19), 2:9 sq. For the symbolical worship of the young bull, SEE CALF, GOLDEN. Compare BEAST.
II. Small Cattle:
1. Sheep. These are designated collectively by צאֹן, tson (a general term, like μῆλον and pecus, including also goats), singly by שֶׂה, seh; while רָחֵל, rachel´, means ewe; אִיַל, a´yil, wether (Chald. דְּכִר, dekar´); כִּר, Kar, a fat pasture lamb; כֶּבֶשׂ, ke´bes, a lamb of one to three years (comp. Gesen.´ Thes. p. 659); טָלֶה, taleh´ (or טְלַי, tell´), a suckling or milk- lamb; מַשְׁנַים, mishnim´ ("fatlings," 1Sa_15:9), is an obscure term, possibly signifying two-year-old lambs (oves secundarias, Columella, Res Rust. 7:3; comp. Bochart, Hieroz. 1:469). Next to neat herds, sheep formed the most important staple of Oriental nomadic pursuits in Aramaea (Genesis 29, 30) and Palestine (Gen_12:16; Gen_13:5; Gen_20:14; Gen_21:27; Gen_24:35; Gen_32:5; Gen_34:28), as in Egypt (Gen_47:17; Exo_9:3), Arabia Petraea and Deserta (Exo_2:16; Exo_2:19; Exo_3:1; Num_31:32; Isa_34:6; Isa_60:7), and Moabitis (2 Kings, in, 4; Isa_16:1). In military feuds between such tribes, we always find sheep mentioned among the booty of the victors (Num_31:32; Jos_6:21; 1Sa_14:32; 1Sa_15:3 sq.; 1Sa_27:9; 1Ch_5:21, etc.). The same is still universally true of modern Bedouin Arabs, whose traffic in sheep (comp. Eze_26:21) is their leading mark of prosperity and even opulence (comp. Arvieux, 3:132). The patriarchs had large flocks of sheep in Palestine, as later in Egypt or Goshen (Exo_10:9; Exo_10:24; compare Hengstenberg, Pent. p. 5 sq.); also upon the occupation of Canaan by the Israelites, sheep-breeding continued to be the chief employment of a large part of the population down to the latest period, being carried on amid the numerous open tracts and hills of the country (Isa_7:25), many of which were productive of saline plants (comp. Deu_7:1-3; Deu_8:13; Deu_28:4; Jdg_6:4; 1Sa_22:19; 2Sa_12:2; Pro_27:23; Ecc_2:7; Jer_3:24; Jer_5:17; Hos_5:6; Joe_1:18; Jdt_8:6, etc.). There were rich owners of flecks (1Sa_25:2; 2Sa_12:2; comp. Job_1:3; Job_42:12), and even kings had their shepherds (1Ch_27:31; Amo_7:1; compare 2Ch_32:28), from whom they derived a revenue of sheep and wool as presents (2Sa_17:29; 1Ch_12:40) or tribute (2Ki_3:4; Isa_16:1). Among the regions most favorable for sheep- rearing are mentioned the plain of Sharon (Isa_65:10), Matthew Carmel (Mic_7:14), Bashan (Ezekiel 39), and Gilead (Micah 50, 100.). The sheep in the patriarchal age were tended oftentimes by the daughters of the owners (Gen_29:9; compare Exo_2:16); later by overseers or hired men (Joh_10:12); sometimes by the sons of the family (1Sa_16:11; 1Sa_17:15). SEE SHEPHERD.
The keepers gave their sheep, especially the bell-wethers, regular names (Joh_10:3; compare Theocr. 5:102 sq.; Aristot. Anim. 6:16; Longin. Pastor. 5:17 and 19), and familiarized these animals with their voice so as to follow them (comp. 2Sa_12:2). The sheep roamed all summer in the open air, being folded only at night (Num_32:16; 2Ch_32:28) in a pen (גְּדֵרָה, gederah´; Talmud, דור), where, in exposed positions, they were guarded by sentries (Luk_2:8). In the daytime they appear to have been sometimes sheltered from the heat of the sun in caverns (כְּרוֹת, Zep_2:6; which, however, according to others, signifies only pits, i.e. cisterns for watering the sheep). Shepherds' dogs were indispensable (Job_30:1). Of the young, which sheep bear twice a year, the autumn lambs were considered the more vigorous (Varro, Res Rust. 2:2, 18; Colum. R. R. 7:3; Pliny, 8:72; comp. Hamaker, Miscell. Phoenic. p. 117 sq.). The flesh of the sheep, especially that of wethers and lambs, was, as with modern Arabs (Wellsted, Trav. p. 121), a highly esteemed food (1Sa_25:18; Isa_22:13; Amo_6:4; Tob_7:9; Tob_8:21), and was essential to a well-spread board (1Ki_4:23; Nehemiah v. 18). The milk of sheep was also an article of culinary use (Deu_32:14; comp. Diod. Sic. 1:18; Pliny 28:33; Strabo, 17:835; Colum. R. R. 7:2; Dioscor. 2:75). Sheep, especially lambs and rams (q.v.), were a prominent animal in sacrifices (q.v.), and a stock of them was often sacrilegiously offered for sale in the Jewish temple (Joh_2:14). The wool (צֶמֶר, tse´mer, or גֵּז, gez), which, on account of the pasturing of the flock under the open sky, attained a high degree of fineness (as in Spain), was wrought into garments (Lev_13:47; Deu_22:11; Eze_34:3; Job_31:20; Pro_27:26; Pro_31:13), and the Israelites were obliged to pay tithes of this product (Deu_18:4). Sheep- shearing (Gen_38:12) was a rural festive occasion (1Sa_25:4; 2Sa_13:23). As enemies of the shepherd are named the lion (Mic_5:7), the bear (1Sa_17:34) and the wolf (Sir_13:21; Mat_10:16; Joh_10:12; conip. Isa_11:6; Isa_65:25), which might easily carry off a single animal in the extensive and solitary pastures, although even this was often rescued by the sheep-tender (1Sa_17:34 sq.). SEE LION.
The sheep were very liable also to stray in the wide pasturages (Psa_109:17; Isa_53:6; Hos_4:16; Mat_18:12). On the "rot," or disease peculiar to flocks, see Bochart, 1:596; Aristot. Anim. 9:3. The color of sheep is in the East generally white (Psa_147:16; Isa_1:18; Dan_7:9; Son_6:5; Rev_1:14; comp. Eze_27:18); although black (חוּם, dusky, Gen_30:32) ones are also found (Colum. R. R. 7:2; Pliny, 8:73; comp. Wellsted, 1:213; Ruppell, Abyssin. 2:21), as well as spotted and grizzled (Gen_30:32), peculiarities which shepherds knew how to produce artificially (Gen_30:37 sq.; Strabo, 10:449; Pliny, 31:9; comp. Rosselini, Monum. Civil. 1:246). See JACOB. A peculiar species of sheep (Ovis laticaudata, Linn.) is found in the East, with a long fat tail (אִלְיָה, ayah´, Arab. alyat, A. V. "rump;" Lev_3:9; Lev_7:3; Lev_8:25; Lev_9:19) of 10 to 15, and sometimes 40 to 50 pounds' weight, turned up at the end, and often drawn by the animal upon a board or small two-wheeled cart (Herod. 3:113; Aristot. Anim. 8:28; Pliny, 8:75; Died. Sic. 2:54; AElian, Anm. 3:3; 10:4; Olear. Persian. 5:8; Kampfer, Amoen. p. 506 sq.; Lucas, Reise nach d. Levante, p. 183; Russel, Aleppo, 2:8; Descript. de l'Egypte, 23:197 sq.; Oedman, Samml. 4:75 sq.; comp. Korte, Reise, p. 429; Robinson, Res. 2:169, 180; Schubert, 3:118). That the same contrivance was customary with the Jews may be seen from the Mishna (Shabb. 5:4). This kind of sheep is farther distinguished from the common species of the Bedouins by its turned-up nose, and long, pendent ears. On the Mosaic enactments respecting the rights of property in sheep ( Exodus 22; Deuteronomy 22), see above. Compare generally Bochart, Hieroz. 1:451 sq.; Michaelis, Verm. Schrift. 1:118 sq. In Daniel 8 the Persian empire (king) is personified by a ram. SEE PERSIA. On this figure (which represents the subjects as a flock), see Lengerke, Daniel, p. 365 sq. SEE SHEEP.
2. Goats. This kind of stock is usually classed with sheep under the word צאֹן, tson, or (when a single head is intended) שֶׂה, seh, and thus associated with neat cattle, בָּקָרbakar´ (as in Hem. μῆλα, then βόες). The terms for goats individually are: עֵן, ez, a he-goat; שְׂעַירִת עַזִּים, seïrath´ izzim´ (shaggy female of the goats), a she-goat; for the buck, more distinctively, there are several terms: תִּיַשׁ, ta´yish; עִתּוּד, attud´; שָׂעַיר, saïr´ (more fully שְׂעַיר עַזַּים, seïr´ izzim´, i.e. shaggy male of the goats); צְפַיר, tsephir´; גְּדַי, gedi´, is a collective term. Goats were reared by the early patriarchs (Gen_15:9; Gen_32:14; Gen_37:31), as by the modern Bedouins; and in later times they also formed an important element (in all the hilly regions of Palestine) of agricultural wealth (comp. 1Sa_25:2; Son_6:5; Pro_27:26; see Eze_27:21). They were used not only for sacrifice, but also for food (Deu_14:4; comp. Buckingham, 2:67; Robinson, 1:342; Wellsted, p. 406), especially the young males (Gen_27:9; Gen_27:14; Gen_27:17; Jdg_6:19; Jdg_13:15; 1Sa_16:20), as still in the East (Russel, Aleppo, 2:23). The milk of goats was also an article of food (Pro_27:27), being more wholesome than that of sheep (Pliny, 28:33; comp. Bochart, Hieroz. 1:717; Prosp. Alpin. Res AEgypt. p. 229). Goat-skins were only employed as clothing by poor persons, or such as chose to wear mean apparel (Heb_11:37). They were generally made into water or wine casks. SEE BOTTLE.
Goat's hair was often the material of tent-cloth (Exo_26:7; Exo_36:14; comp. Della Valle, Trav. 1:206; Arvieux, in, 226; Volney, 1:303; Thevenot, in, 196), as well as of matresses and bedding (1Sa_19:13; 1Sa_19:16; but see on this passage Kolkar, Quaest. Bibl. spec. 2:56 sq.), and frequently of cloaks (Robinson, 1:279). SEE TENT; SEE BOLSTER; SEE CLOTHING. The goats of the nomadic Arabs are generally black; but in Syria (Russel, ut sup.; Thevenot, 2:196; Russegger, 1:712) and Lower Egypt (Sonini, 1:329) there are found goats of a large size, like the European, with hanging ears (often a foot or more in length), and of a bright red color: this species is called Capra Mambrica. Whether the Angora goat (Capra Angorensis of Linn.) (see Hasselquist, p. 285; Tournefort, 3:488; Schubert, 1:379), whose long, soft, silky hair is made into the well-known "'camlet" stuff, was also indigenous to Palestine (Schulz, Leit. 5:28, will have it found on Lebanon), is undetermined; it is possibly that referred to in Son_6:5. On the Mosaic enactment respecting the cooking of a kid in its mother's milk (Exo_23:19; Exo_34:26; Deu_14:21), SEE KID. The symbol of the Macedonian (Alexander's) empire by a hegoat (צְפַיר הָעַזַּים) in Dan_8:5 sq., may be illustrated by the epithet AEgean (Αἰγεάδες, q. d. goatmen), applied to the Greek colonies on that part of the Mediterranean Sea (comp. Justin. 7:1, 7). SEE MACEDONIA. See generally Bochart, Hieroz. 1:703. On the Syrian wild goats, SEE IBEX. SEE GOAT.
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