Cross

VIEW:40 DATA:01-04-2020
CROSS.—The cross in its literal sense is dealt with under Crucifixion, but there are certain spiritual uses of the word in the NT that call for separate consideration.
(1) It is a symbol of self-sacrifice.—According to the Gospels, Jesus on at least three occasions affirmed the necessity for those who would follow Him of taking up the cross (Mat_10:38; Mar_8:34 = Mat_16:24 = Luk_9:23; [Mar_10:21 only in AV [Note: Authorized Version.] ]; Luk_14:27). The words imply a prophetic anticipation of His own experience on Calvary; but even although on Christ’s earliest use of them this special application was hidden from His disciples (cf. Mat_16:21; Mat_20:19), the figure of bearing one’s cross would convey a quite intelligible meaning. In Galilee multitudes had been crucified after the rebellion under Judas the Gaulonite (Jos. [Note: Josephus.] Ant. XVII. X. 10, BJ II. v. 2); in Jerusalem, as we see from the execution of two robbers side by side with Jesus, a crucifixion must have been an ordinary incident of the administration of Roman law. And as it was usual to compel a cruciarius to carry to the place of execution the transverse beam (patibulum) of his own cross, Christ’s figure would have a meaning as plain as it was vivid. But, unlike the wretched cruciarius, His disciples of their own free will were to take up the cross and follow Him.
(2) It is a thing of shame.—The author of Hebrews tells us bow Jesus ‘endured the cross, despising shame’ (Heb_12:2). Both to the Roman and to the Jew the death of the cross was the most shameful death a man could die—to the former because reserved by Roman usage for slaves, foreigners, or desperate criminals; to the latter because it came under the curse denounced by the Jewish Law upon any one whose dead body hung upon a tree (Deu_21:23; cf. Gal_3:13). To Jew and Gentile alike this was the great ‘stumbling-block of the cross’ (Gal_5:11, 1Co_1:23). And even St. Paul himself regards ‘the death of the cross’ as the very lowest point in Christ’s long pathway of humiliation (Php_2:8).
(3) There are certain theological uses of the word peculiar to the Pauline writings. St. Paul makes the cross a summary of the gospel. Thus for ‘the preaching of the gospel’ in 1Co_1:17 he substitutes in 1Co_1:18 ‘the word of the cross,’ and in 1Co_1:23 ‘the preaching of Christ crucified’ (cf. 1Co_2:2). Again in Gal_6:12 he speaks of suffering persecution ‘for the cross of Christ,’ where the meaning evidently is ‘for the confession of faith in the Christian gospel.’ And when he glories in ‘the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ’ (1Co_1:14), the cross is used, as the clauses following show, to epitomize the saving work of Jesus both for us and in us.
(4) Further, in the Pauline theology the cross is set forth as the great instrument of reconciliation. It is ‘through the blood of his cross’ that Christ has effected a reconciliation between God and man (Col_1:20 ff.). He took out of the way the bond written in ordinances that was against us, ‘nailing it to the cross’ (Col_2:14). It is ‘through the cross’ that He has reconciled the Gentile and the Jew, abolishing that ‘law of commandments’ which rose between them like a middle wall of partition (Eph_2:14-16). And there are glimpses of a still wider reconciliation accomplished by Jesus through His cross—a reconciliation of all things unto God the Father, whether they be things upon the earth or things in the heavens (Col_1:20, cf. Eph_1:10).
(5) Once more, the cross is to St. Paul the symbol of a mystical union with Christ Himself. In the great figure of the Gospels (Mat_10:38 ||) cross-bearing stands for the imitation of Christ. St. Paul goes deeper, and sees in the cross a crucifixion with Christ from which there springs a possession of the indwelling life of Christ (Gal_2:20). The old man is crucified (Rom_6:6), that a new man may rise from the dead (cf. Rom_6:4). The flesh is crucified, with its passions and lusts (Gal_5:24), that the Christian may live and walk by the Spirit (Gal_5:25). And yet this mysticism of the cross never causes the Apostle to lose sight of the cross as the means of an objective redemption. On the contrary, he regards the two ideas as inseparably connected; and, glorying in the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ, does so because through it (a) the world—the sphere of external ordinances—is crucified unto him; and (b) he himself is crucified unto the world (Gal_6:14).
J. C. Lambert.
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible
Edited by James Hastings, D.D. Published in 1909


The instrument of a slave's death, associated with the ideas of pain, guilt, and ignominy. "The very name," writes Cicero (Pro Rab., 5), "ought to be excluded not merely from the body, but from the thought, eyes, and ears of Roman citizens." The Hebrew, having no term for it as not being a punishment in their nation, called it "warp and woof." Scourging generally preceded crucifixion: so Jesus (Mat_27:26; Mar_15:15; foretold in Isa_50:6; Isa_53:5). Pilate had probably hoped the Jews would be content with this scourging, and still let Him escape crucifixion (Luk_23:22; Joh_19:1). Jesus bore His own cross toward Golgotha outside the city (Heb_13:12; so Stephen, Act_7:58), but sinking exhausted probably He was relieved, and it was transferred to Simon of Cyrene; prefigured in Isaac carrying the wood (Gen_22:6; contrast Isa_9:6, "the government shall be upon His shoulder".)
Jesus' sacred and lacerated body was raised aloft, the hands nailed to the transverse beam, the feet separately nailed to the lower part of the upright beam so as to be a foot or two above the ground (others think the two feet were pierced by one and the same nail). Stupefying drink, vinegar mixed with gall and myrrh, was first offered to Him and refused (Mat_27:34), for He would meet suffering consciously. Near death, to fulfill Psa_69:21, He drank of the sour wine or vinegar kindly offered Him on a sponge. His death was hastened by rupture of the heart (See BLOOD; also Mar_15:23; compare Joh_19:28; Mat_27:48.)
The sour wine called posca was the common drink of the Roman soldiers. Pilate marveled at His speedy death, crucifixion often not terminating in death for days. The approach of the Passover sabbath, one of peculiar solemnity, led to his permitting the Jewish law to be carried out which forbids bodies to hang after sunset (Deu_21:22-23). His legs could not be broken, because the Passover type must be fulfilled (Exo_12:46). Constantine when converted abolished crucifixion. The agony consisted in:
(1) the unnatural position of the body, causing pain at the least motion;
(2) the nails being driven through the hands and feet, which are full of nerves and tendons, yet without a vital part being directly injured;
(3) the wounds so long exposed bringing on acute inflammation and gangrene;
(4) the distended parts causing more blood to flow through the arteries than can be carried back through the veins;
(5) the lingering anguish and burning thirst.
After Constantine's vision of the cross in the air and the inscription, "Under this standard thou shalt conquer," a new standard was adopted, the Labarum, with a pendent cross and embroidered monogram of Christ, the first two Greek letters of His name, and Alpha and Omega (Rev_1:8). The Andrew's cross is shaped like an X, through Hippolytus says he was crucified upright. The Anthony cross (embroidered on his cope) was shaped as a T. The pagan Egyptians, Copts, Indians, and Persians, all have the same sacred emblem. Tradition, and the inscription over our Lord's head, make it likely that the form of His cross was +. The pole on which the brazen serpent was lifted by Moses was the type (Joh_3:14; Num_21:8-9).
The fathers regarded its four limbs pointing above, below, and to both sides, as typifying" the height, depth, length, and breadth" of the love of Christ, extending salvation to all (Eph_3:18). The harmlessness of cruciform flowers is another suggested type in nature. Christ's cross transforms the curse into a blessing (Gal_3:13-14); the inscription was written with letters of black on a white gypsum ground. By a striking retribution in kind, the Jewish people, whose cry was "crucify Him," were crucified in such numbers by Titus "that there was not room enough for the crosses, nor crosses enough for their bodies" (Joseptius, B. J., 6:28). The piercing of Jesus' hands was foretold in Psa_22:16; Zec_12:10.
The story of "the invention of the cross," A.D. 326, is: Helena the empress, mother of Constantine, then nearly 80 years old, made a pilgrimage to the holy places, and there, by help of a Jew who understood her superstitious tastes, found three crosses, among which Christ's cross was recognized by its power of working miracles, at the suggestion of Macarius, bishop of Jerusalem. Bits of this real cross were distributed as relics throughout Christendom. To supply the enormous demand, they were alleged to have been miraculously multiplied! In the church of the Holy Jerusalem Cross at Rome, relics of the top of the cross with the inscription are annually exhibited to the people for veneration. The falsity of the whole story appears from the fact that the Jews' law required the cross to be burnt; Eusebius is silent as to the alleged discovery of it.
A symbol or emblem merely at first, it soon began to have the notion of spiritual and supernatural efficacy attached to it. In the 6th century the crucifix image was introduced, and worship (latria) to it was sanctioned by the Church of Rome. Figuratively, the cross and crucifixion are used for spiritually mortifying the flesh, in union spiritually by faith with Christ crucified, not self-imposed austerities (Mat_16:24; Php_3:18; Gal_6:14; Col_2:20-23). Our will and God's will are as two separate pieces of wood; so long as both lie side by side there is no cross; but put them across one another, then there is a cross. We must take up the cross Christ lays on us if we would be His disciples.
Fausset's Bible Dictionary
By Andrew Robert Fausset, co-Author of Jamieson, Fausset and Brown's 1888.


Cross. As the emblem of a slave's death and a murderer's punishment, the cross was naturally looked upon with the profoundest horror. But after the celebrated vision of Constantine, he ordered his friends to make a cross of gold and gems, such as he had seen, and "the towering eagles resigned the flags unto the cross," and "the tree of cursing and shame" "sat upon the sceptres and was engraved and signed on the foreheads of kings." (Jer. Taylor, "Life of Christ," iii., xv. 1).
The new standards were called by the name Labarum, and may be seen on the coins of Constantine the Great and his nearer successors. The Latin cross on which our Lord suffered, was in the form of the letter T, and had an upright above the cross-bar, on which the "title" was placed.
There was a projection from the central stem, on which the body of the sufferer rested. This was to prevent the weight of the body from tearing away the hands. Whether there was also a support to the feet , (as we see in pictures), is doubtful. An inscription was generally placed above the criminal's head, briefly expressing his guilt, and generally was carried before him. It was covered with white gypsum, and the letters were black.
Smith's Bible Dictionary
By Dr. William Smith.Published in 1863


an ancient instrument of capital punishment. The cross was the punishment inflicted by the Romans, on servants who had perpetrated crimes, on robbers, assassins, and rebels; among which last Jesus was reckoned, on the ground of his making himself King or Messiah, Luk_23:1-5; Luk_23:13-15. The words in which the sentence was given were, “Thou shalt go to the cross.” The person who was subjected to this punishment was then deprived of all his clothes excepting something around the loins. In this state of nudity he was beaten, sometimes with rods, but more generally with whips. Such was the severity of this flagellation, that numbers died under it. Jesus was crowned with thorns, and made the subject of mockery; but insults of this kind were not among the ordinary attendants of crucifixion. They were owing, in this case, merely to the petulant spirit of the Roman soldiers, Mat_27:29; Mar_15:17; Joh_19:2; Joh_19:5. The criminal, having been beaten, was subjected to the farther suffering of being obliged to carry the cross himself to the place of punishment, which was commonly a hill, near the public way, and out of the city. The place of crucifixion at Jerusalem was a hill to the north-west of the city. The cross, σταυρος, a post, otherwise called the unpropitious or infamous tree, consisted of a piece of wood erected perpendicularly, and intersected by another at right angles near the top, so as to resemble the letter T. The crime for which the person suffered was inscribed on the transverse piece near the top of the perpendicular one.
There is no mention made in ancient writers of any thing on which the feet of the person crucified rested. Near the middle, however, of the perpendicular beam, there projected a piece of wood, on which he sat, and which answered as a support to the body, since the weight of the body might otherwise have torn away the hands from the nails driven through them. The cross, which was erected at the place of punishment, being there firmly fixed in the ground, rarely exceeded ten feet in height. The victim, perfectly naked, was elevated to the small projection in the middle: the hands were then bound by a rope round the transverse beam, and nailed through the palm.
The assertion that the persons who suffered crucifixion were not in some instances fastened to the cross by nails through the hands and feet, but were merely bound to it by ropes, cannot be proved by the testimony of any ancient writer whatever. That the feet, as well as the hands, were fastened to the cross by means of nails, is expressly asserted in the play of Plautus, entitled “Mostellaria,” compared with Tertullian against the Jews, and against Marcion. In regard to the nailing of the feet, it may be farthermore observed, that Gregory Nazianzen has asserted, that one nail only was driven through both of them; but Cyprian, (de passione,) who had been a personal witness to crucifixions, and is, consequently, in this case, the better authority, states, on the contrary, that two nails or spikes were driven, one through each foot. The crucified person remained suspended in this way till he died, and the corpse had become putrid. While he exhibited any signs of life, he was watched by a guard; but they left him when it appeared that he was dead. The corpse was not buried, except by express permission, which was sometimes granted by the emperor on his birth day, but only to a very few. An exception, however, to this general practice was made by the Romans in favour of the Jews, on account of Deu_21:22-23; and in Judea, accordingly, crucified persons were buried on the same day. When, therefore, there was not a prospect that they would die on the day of the crucifixion, the executioners hastened the extinction of life, by kindling a fire under the cross, so as to suffocate them with the smoke, or by letting loose wild beasts upon them, or by breaking their bones upon the cross with a mallet, as upon an anvil. The Jews, in the times of which we are speaking, namely, while they were under the jurisdiction of the Romans, were in the habit of giving the criminal, before the commencement of his sufferings, a medicated drink of wine and myrrh, Pro_31:6. The object of this was to produce intoxication, and thereby render the pains of the crucifixion less sensible to the sufferer. This beverage was refused by the Saviour for the obvious reason, that he chose to die with the faculties of his mind undisturbed and unclouded, Mat_27:34; Mar_15:23. It should be remarked, that this sort of drink, which was probably offered out of kindness, was different from the vinegar which was subsequently offered to the Saviour by the Roman soldiers. The latter was a mixture of vinegar and water, denominated posca, and was a common drink for the soldiers in the Roman army, Luk_23:36; Joh_19:29.
2. Crucifixion was not only the most ignominious, it was likewise the most cruel, mode of punishment: so very much so, that Cicero is justified in saying, in respect to crucifixion, “Ab oculis, auribusque et omni cogitatione hominum removendum esse.” [That it ought neither to be seen, heard of, nor even thought of by men.] The sufferings endured by a person on whom this punishment is inflicted are narrated by George Gottlieb Richter, a German physician, in a “Dissertation on the Saviour's Crucifixion.” The position of the body is unnatural, the arms being extended back, and almost immovable. In case of the least motion, an extremely painful sensation is experienced in the hands and feet, which are pierced with nails, and in the back, which is lacerated with stripes. The nails, being driven through the parts of the hands and feet which abound in nerves and tendons, create the most exquisite anguish. The exposure of so many wounds to the open air brings on an inflammation, which every moment increases the poignancy of the suffering. In those parts of the body which are distended or pressed, more blood flows through the arteries than can be carried back in the veins. The consequence is, that a greater quantity of blood finds its way from the aorta into the head and stomach, than would be carried there by a natural and undisturbed circulation. The blood vessels of the head become pressed and swollen, which of course causes pain, and a redness of the face. The circumstance of the blood being impelled in more than ordinary quantities into the stomach is an unfavourable one also, because it is that part of the system which not only admits of the blood being stationary, but is peculiarly exposed to mortification. The aorta, not being at liberty to empty, in the free and undisturbed way as formerly, the blood which it receives from the left ventricle of the heart, is unable to receive its usual quantity. The blood of the lungs, therefore, is unable to find a free circulation. This general obstruction extends its effects likewise to the right ventricle, and the consequence is, an internal excitement, and exertion, and anxiety, which are more intolerable than the anguish of death itself. All the large vessels about the heart, and all the veins and arteries in that part of the system, on account of the accumulation and pressure of blood, are the source of inexpressible misery. The degree of anguish is gradual in its increase; and the person crucified is able to live under it commonly till the third, and sometimes till the seventh, day. Pilate, therefore, being surprised at the speedy termination of the Saviour's life, inquired in respect to the truth of it of the centurion himself, who commanded the soldiers, Mar_15:44.
In order to bring their life to a more speedy termination, so that they might be buried on the same day, the bones of the two thieves were broken with mallets, Joh_19:31-37; and in order to ascertain this point in respect to Jesus, namely, whether he was really dead, or whether he had merely fallen into a swoon, a soldier thrust his lance into his side; but no signs of life appeared, Joh_19:31-37.
3. Our Saviour says, that whosoever will be his disciple must take up his cross and follow him, Mat_16:24 : by which is meant, that his disciples must be willing to suffer for him, in any way in which God, in the course of his providence, may call them to suffer; even to endure martyrdom, if called to it. The cross is also often put for the whole of Christ's sufferings, Eph_2:16; Heb_12:2; and the doctrine of his perfect atonement, Gal_6:14.
Biblical and Theological Dictionary by Richard Watson
PRINTER 1849.


Crucifixion was a form of torture and execution used by the Romans, not by the Jews. Yet Jesus knew that in the end this was the way the Jews would have him killed (Joh_3:14; Joh_8:28; Joh_12:32-33). Although the New Testament writers refer to the cruelty and injustice of Jesus’ crucifixion (Act_2:23; see CRUCIFIXION), their main concern is not with the physical horror of his death but with its theological meaning (1Co_1:18; 1Pe_2:24).
The curse of the cross
Israelites of Old Testament times executed their criminals by stoning them. After an execution, they hung the body of the victim on a tree as a sign to all that he was under the curse and judgment of God (Deu_21:22-23). The Jews of Jesus’ day, being under the rule of Rome, had no power to carry out executions themselves, but had to submit requests for execution to the Roman authorities. In the case of Jesus they did not even ask for him to be stoned when they saw it would be easier to have him crucified (Mat_27:22-23).
The Jews considered that Jesus’ hanging on the cross had the same meaning as hanging on a tree. They considered, therefore, that he was under the curse of God. Actually, Jesus did bear the curse of God, but he did so on behalf of sinners, not because of any sin he had committed (Act_5:30; Act_10:39; Gal_3:10-13; 1Pe_2:24). Because the Jews had a wrong understanding of the curse Jesus bore in his death, his crucifixion was to them a stumbling block. They could not trust in Jesus’ death on the cross as a way of salvation, and therefore they could not be saved (1Co_1:23; see CURSE; STUMBLING BLOCK).
God’s way of salvation
To the writers of the New Testament, Jesus’ death on the cross was the central point in the whole saving activity of God (1Co_1:23; 1Co_2:2; 1Co_15:3-4; see JUSTIFICATION; PROPITIATION). The cross therefore became a symbol for that salvation. The message of the gospel was the message of the cross (1Co_1:17-18; Gal_3:1; Gal_6:12; Gal_6:14; Eph_2:16; Php_3:18; see GOSPEL; RECONCILIATION). To the early Christians, the expression ‘cross of Christ’, like the expression ‘blood of Christ’, meant the same as ‘death of Christ’ (Rom_5:9-10; Col_1:20; Col_1:22; see BLOOD).
The cross symbolized death not only for Christ, but also for believers. Paul explained the meaning of the baptism of believers in relation to the cross of Christ. Their union with Christ means that they have, so to speak, died on the cross with Christ, been buried with Christ, and risen with Christ to new life (Rom_6:3-4; Gal_2:20; Col_2:12-14; see BAPTISM). Christians demonstrate the truth of this in their daily lives by living victoriously over the old sinful nature, the flesh (Gal_5:24; Gal_6:14; see FLESH).
But death on a cross also meant humiliation. Believers must therefore be prepared for the sort of humiliation Christ suffered (Php_2:8; Heb_12:2; Heb_13:12-13; see PERSECUTION).
Christian self-denial
During his lifetime, Jesus warned people what to expect if they became his disciples. Jesus knew that his life would finish at the cross, and each person who followed him had to be prepared to take up his or her own cross and follow Jesus to a similar end (Mat_16:24-26; cf. Joh_19:17-18).
To bear one’s cross is still a requirement for all those who want to follow Christ. It means they must sacrifice their own interests for the sake of Christ. Christ does not require every disciple to suffer literal crucifixion, but he does require every disciple to be prepared for it, should it be God’s will. If disciples are prepared for that, they will be prepared for the lesser sacrifices and hardships that are involved in following Christ (Mat_10:37-38; Luk_14:27-33; see DISCIPLE).
Bridgeway Bible Dictionary by Don Fleming
PRINTER 1990.


(σταυρός, staurós, ?a cross,? ?the crucifixion?; σκόλοψ, skólops, ?a stake,? ?a pole?): The name is not found in the Old Testament. It is derived from the Latin word crux. In the Greek language it is stauros, but sometimes we find the word skolops used as its Greek equivalent. The historical writers, who transferred the events of Roman history into the Greek language, make use of these two words. No word in human language has become more universally known than this word, and that because all of the history of the world since the death of Christ has been measured by the distance which separates events from it. The symbol and principal content of the Christian religion and of Christian civilization is found in this one word.
1. Forms of the Cross
The cross occurs in at least four different forms: (1) The form usually seen in pictures, the crux immissa, in which the upright beam projected above the shorter crosspiece; this is most likely the type of cross on which the Saviour died, as may be inferred from the inscription which was nailed above His head; (2) The crux commissa, or Anthony's cross, which has the shape of the letter T; (3) The Greek cross of later date, in which the pieces are equally long; (4) The crux decussata, or Andrew's cross, which has the shape of the letter X.
2. Discovery of the True Cross
The early church historians Socrates (1, 17), Sozomen (2, 1), Rufinus (1, 7) and Theodoret (1, 18) all make mention of this tradition. The most significant thing is that Eusebius (Vit. Const., iii.26-28), who carries more weight than they all together, wholly omits it.
According to it, Helena, the mother of Constantine the Great, in 325 ad, when she was 79 years old, discovered the true cross of Jesus by an excavation she caused to be made on the traditional spot of His grave. With the cross of the Saviour were found the two crosses of the malefactors who were crucified with Him. A miracle of healing, wrought by touching the true cross, revealed its identity. Whenfound it was intact, even the holy nails of the crucifixion being discovered. The main part of the cross was deposited by Helena in a church erected over the spot. Of the remainder, a portion was inserted into the head of the statue of Constantine, and the balance was placed in a new church, specially erected for it at Rome and named after it Santa Croce. Small fragments of the wood of the true cross were sold, encrusted with gold and jewels, and since many among the wealthy believers were desirous of possessing such priceless relics, the miracle of the ?multiplication of the cross? was devised, so that the relic suffered no diminution ?et quasi intacta maneret? (Paulinus epistle 11 ad Sev). Fragments of the true cross are Thus to be found in many Roman Catholic churches of many countries, all over Christendom. It is said that the East celebrated the staurosimos hēmera (Crucifixion Day) on September 14, since the 4th century. The evidence for this fact is late and untrustworthy. It is certain that the West celebrated the Invention of the Cross, on May 3, since the time of Gregory the Great in the 6th century. The finding and publication of the apocryphal ?Doctrina Addaei? has made it evident that the entire legend of the discovery of the cross by Helena is but a version of the old Edessa legend, which tells of an identical discovery of the cross, under the very same circumstances, by the wife of the emperor Claudius, who had been converted to Christianity by the preaching of Peter.
3. Symbolical Uses of the Cross
(1) Extra-Scriptural
The sign of the cross was well known in the symbolics of various ancient nations. Among the Egyptians it is said to have been the symbol of divinity and eternal life, and to have been found in the temple of Serapis. It is known either in the form of the Greek cross or in the form of the letter ?T?. The Spaniards found it to be well known, as a symbol, by the Mexicans and Peruvians, perhaps signifying the four elements, or the four seasons, or the four points of the compass.
(2) Scriptural
The suffering implied in crucifixion naturally made the cross a symbol of pain, distress and burden-bearing. Thus Jesus used it Himself (Mat_10:38; Mat_16:24). In Paulinic literature the cross stands for the preaching of the doctrine of the Atonement (1Co_1:18; Gal_6:14; Phi_3:18; Col_1:20). It expresses the bond of unity between the Jew and the Gentile (Eph_2:16), and between the believer and Christ, and also symbolizes sanctification (Gal_5:24). The cross is the center and circumference of the preaching of the apostles and of the life of the New Testament church.
4. Crucifixion
As an instrument of death the cross was detested by the Jews. ?Cursed is everyone that hangeth on a tree? (Gal_3:13; compare Deu_21:23), hence, it became a stumbling-block to them, for how could one accursed of God be their Messiah? Nor was the cross differently considered by the Romans. ?Let the very name of the cross be far away not only from the body of a Roman citizen, but even from his thoughts, his eyes, his ears? (Cicero Pro Rabirio 5). The earliest mode of crucifixion seems to have been by impalation, the transfixion of the body lengthwise and crosswise by sharpened stakes, a mode of death-punishment still well known among the Mongol race. The usual mode of crucifixion was familiar to the Greeks, the Romans, the Egyptians, Persians and Babylonians (Thuc. 1, 110; Herod. iii.125, 159). Alexander the Great executed two thousand Tyrian captives in this way, after the fall of the city. The Jews received this form of punishment from the Syrians and Romans (Ant., XII, v, 4; XX, vi, 2; BJ, I, iv, 6). The Roman citizen was exempt from this form of death, it being considered the death of a slave (Cicero In Verrem i. 5, 66; Quint. viii.4). The punishment was meted out for such crimes as treason, desertion in the face of the enemy, robbery, piracy, assassination, sedition, etc. It continued in vogue in the Roman empire till the day of Constantine, when it was abolished as an insult to Christianity. Among the Romans crucifixion was preceded by scourging, undoubtedly to hasten impending death. The victim then bore his own cross, or at least the upright beam, to the place of execution. This in itself proves that the structure was less ponderous than is commonly supposed. When he was tied to the cross nothing further was done and he was left to die from starvation. If he was nailed to the cross, at least in Judea, a stupefying drink was given him to deaden the agony. The number of nails used seems to have been indeterminate. A tablet, on which the feet rested or on which the body was partly supported, seems to have been a part of the cross to keep the wounds from tearing through the transfixed members (Iren., Adv. haer., ii.42). The suffering of death by crucifixion was intense, especially in hot climates. Severe local inflammation, coupled with an insignificant bleeding of the jagged wounds, produced traumatic fever, which was aggravated the exposure to the heat of the sun, the strained of the body and insufferable thirst. The swelled about the rough nails and the torn lacerated tendons and nerves caused excruciating agony. The arteries of the head and stomach were surcharged with blood and a terrific throbbing headache ensued. The mind was confused and filled with anxiety and dread foreboding. The victim of crucifixion literally died a thousand deaths. Tetanus not rarely supervened and the rigors of the attending convulsions would tear at the wounds and add to the burden of pain, till at last the bodily forces were exhausted and the victim sank to unconsciousness and death. The sufferings were so frightful that ?even among the raging passions of war pity was sometimes excited? (BJ, V, xi, 1). The length of this agony was wholly determined by the constitution of the victim, but death rarely ensued before thirty-six hours had elapsed. Instances are on record of victims of the cross who survived their terrible injuries when taken down from the cross after many hours of suspension (Josephus, Vita, 75). Death was sometimes hastened by breaking the legs of the victims and by a hard blow delivered under the armpit before crucifixion. Crura fracta was a well-known Roman term (Cicero Phil. xiii.12). The sudden death of Christ evidently was a matter of astonishment (Mar_15:44). The peculiar symptoms mentioned by John (Joh_19:34) would seem to point to a rupture of the heart, of which the Saviour died, independent of the cross itself, or perhaps hastened by its agony. See BLOOD AND WATER.

International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
PRINTER 1915.


In its simplest form, consisting of two pieces of wood, one standing erect, the other crossing it at right angles, the cross was known at an early age in the history of the world. Its use as an instrument of punishment was probably suggested by the shape so often taken by branches of trees, which seem to have been the first crosses that were employed. Trees are known to have been used as crosses, and to every kind of hanging which bore a resemblance to crucifixion, such as that of Prometheus, Andromeda, etc. the name was commonly applied. Among the Scythians Persians, Carthaginians, Greeks, Romans, and the ancient Germans, traces are found of the cross as an instrument of punishment. The sign of the cross is found as a holy symbol among several ancient nations. Among the Indians and Egyptians the cross often appears in their ceremonies, sometimes in the shape of the letter T, at others in this shape . At Susa, Ker Porter saw a stone cut with hieroglyphics and cuneiform inscriptions, on which in one corner was a figure of a cross, thus . The cross, he says, is generally understood to be symbolical of the divinity or eternal life; and certainly a cross was to be seen in the temple of Serapis as the Egyptian emblem of the future life. Porter also states that the Egyptian priests urged its being found on the walls of their temple of Serapis, as an argument with the victorious army of Theodosius to save it from destruction.
According to Lipsius, there were in general two kinds of crosses;?1, the simple cross; 2, the compound cross. The first consisted of a stake on which the criminal was fastened or by which he was impaled. For the first kind of punishment a tree or a specially prepared stake was used, on which the criminal was bound, and either left to perish, or immediately put to death. For impaling a long and sharpened piece of wood (pale) was employed, on which the criminal was put as on a spit. This cruel mode of execution was formerly very customary in Russia, China, Turkey, and other countries, and is not yet universally abolished by law.
Of the compound cross there were three sorts: 1, one shaped like the letter X, also called Andrew's cross, because tradition reports that on a cross of this kind the Apostle Andrew suffered death. 2. Another sort was formed by putting a cross piece of wood on a perpendicular one, so that no part of the latter may stand above the former. This form is found in the figure . 3. The third sort is described as 'a cross in which the longer piece of wood or pale stands above the shorter piece which runs across it near the top.' It is distinguished from the preceding by the part of the longer beam which is above the shorter or transverse, thus . This form is found in paintings more frequently than any other, and on a cross of this kind our Savior is believed to have suffered death.
According to the statement of certain ecclesiastical historians, the cross on which our Lord was crucified was found in the year 326 by the Empress Helena, mother of Constantine the Great. Having built a church over the sacred spot where it was discovered, Helena deposited within it the chief part of the real cross. The remainder she conveyed to Constantinople, a part of which Constantine inserted in the head of a statue of himself, and the other part was sent to Rome, and placed in the church of Sta. Croce in Gerusalemme, which was built expressly to receive the precious relic. When subsequently a festival to commemorate the discovery had been established, the Bishop of Jerusalem, on Easter Sunday, exhibited to the grateful eyes of eager pilgrims the object to see which they had traveled so far and endured so much. Those who were persons of substance were further gratified by obtaining, at their full price, small pieces of the cross set in gold and gems; and that wonder might not pass into incredulity, the proper authorities gave the world an assurance that the holy wood possessed the power of self-multiplication, and, notwithstanding the innumerable pieces which had been taken from it for the pleasure and service of the faithful, remained intact and entire as at the first.
The capture of Jerusalem by the Persians, A.D. 614, placed the remains of the cross in the hands of Chosroes II, who mockingly conveyed them to his capital. Fourteen years afterwards, Heraclius recovered them, and had them carried first to Constantinople, and then to Jerusalem, in such pomp, that on his arrival before the latter city, he found the gate barred and entrance forbidden. Instructed as to the cause of this hindrance, the Emperor laid aside the trappings of his greatness, and, barefooted, bore on his own shoulders the sacred relic up to the gate, which then opened of itself, and allowed him to enter, and thus place his charge beneath the dome of the sepulcher.
From this time no more is heard of the true cross, which may have been destroyed by the Saracens on their conquest of Jerusalem, A.D. 637.
The Popular Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature
by John Kitto.


Mat_10:38 (b) This is always a symbol of suffering and of pain and sorrow. To take up the Cross means to deliberately and willingly enter into a path of obedience to GOD and service for GOD that perhaps may entail the loss of earthly possessions and of friends and the enduring of hardships and difficulties of a severe nature. It means self-denial and self-abnegation. It means a willingness to lay aside opportunities for earthly advancement and be willing to live in more or less of obscurity if that is the will of GOD. It means the denying of luxuries, self-interests and ambitions in order to enter fully into a walk with the rejected CHRIST in a hostile world.

1Co_1:17 (b) In this passage the Cross represents the preaching of those truths which condemns men, reveals their unsaved condition, exposes the wickedness of their hearts, makes known their inability to save or help to save themselves. Men do not want the story about their own wicked and helpless condition. The Cross reveals that all that GOD can do with any person of any kind, anywhere, is to put him to death. No person is fit to live in GOD's presence without the Saviour. It is the preaching of this truth which men call "foolishness."

Gal_6:14 (a) In this interesting passage the Cross has several implications. When the Lord JESUS was made sin for us, took our place under the wrath of GOD, identified Himself and His life with ourselves and our lives, GOD caused Him to be crucified; GOD poured His wrath out upon the One who was taking; our place. The world crucified CHRIST, and that makes the world an enemy of every Christian. But since JESUS was dying for the individual, the Cross means that this individual has been put to death by the world that crucified Christ; therefore, he is dead to the call and the attractions of the world. This truth should cause us to live in separation from that which is so full of enmity against our lovely Lord.
Wilson's Dictionary of Bible Types
press 1957.


Cross
(σταυρός, a pointed stake, prob. from ἵστημι, to stand upright), in the New. Test., signifies properly the instrument of crucifixion; and hence (by metonymy) crucifixion itself, namely, that of Christ (Eph_2:16; Heb_12:2; 1Co_1:17-18; Gal_5:11; Gal_6:12; Gal_6:14; Php_3:18). It is also put figuratively (in the phrases “take up [or bear] the cross,” etc.) for any severe suffering, including the idea of exposure to contumely and death (Mat_10:38; Mat_16:24; Mar_8:34; Mar_10:21; Luk_9:23; Luk_14:27). (See below.)
I. Designations. — Except the Latin crux there was no word definitively and invariably applied to this instrument of punishment. The Greek word σταυρός properly, like σκόλοψ, means merely a stake (Homer, Od. 14:11; II. 24:453). So Eustathius and Hesychius both define it. The Greeks use the word to translate both palus and crux; e.g. σταυρῷ προσδεῖν in Dion. Cass. (49. 22) is exactly equivalent to the Latin ad palum deligare. In Livy even crux means a mere stake (28. 29), just as vice versa the fathers use σκόλοψ, and even stipes, of a cross proper. In consequence of this vagueness of meaning, impaling (Herod. 9:76) is sometimes spoken of, loosely, as a kind of crucifixion, and ἀνασκολοπίζειν is nearly equivalent to ἀνασταυροῦν (Seneca, Consol. ad Marc. 20; and Ep. 14). Other words occasionally applied to the cross are patibulum and furca, pieces of wood in the shape of II or Y and A respectively (Dig. 48, tit. 13; Plautus Mil. Gl. 2:47; and Sallust, fr. ap. Non. 4:355, seems clearly to imply crucifixion). After the abolition of this mode of death by Constantine, Trebonianus substituted furca figendos for crucifigendos wherever the word occurred. More generally the cross is called arbor infelix (Livy, 1:26; Seneca, Ep. 101), or lignum infelix (Cicero, pro Rab. 3);and in Greek ξύλον (Sept. at Deu_21:22): comp. “the accursed tree.” The fathers in controversy used to quote the words ὁ Κύριος ἐβασίλευσεν, “The Lord reigned” (ἀπὸ τοῦ ξύλου), from Psa_45:10, or Psalms 96, as a prophecy of the cross; but these words are a gloss (adulterina et Christiana devotione addita), though Geuebrardus thought them a prophetic addition of the Sept., and Agellius conjectures that they read עֵוֹfor אִŠ(Schleusner's Thesaur.). The Hebrews had no word for a cross more definite than עֵוֹ, “wood” (Gen_40:19, etc.), and so they called the transverse beams שְׁתַי וְעֵרֶב, “warp and woof” (Pearson, On the Creed, art. 4), like ξύλον δίδυμον, of the Sept. Crux is the root of crucio, and is often used proverbially for what is most painful (as Colum. 1:7; Terence, Phorm. 3, 3, 11), and as a nickname for villains (Plautus, Poan. 2:5, 17). Rarer terms are ἴκριον (Eusebius, 8:8), σάνις (?), and gabalus (Varro ap. Non. 2:373; Macrinus ap. Capitol. Macr. 11). This last word is derived from גָּבִל, “to complete.”
II. Forms of the Cross. — In its simplest shape, consisting of two pieces of wood, one standing erect, the other crossing it at right angles, the cross was known at an early age in the history of the world. Its use as an instrument of punishment was probably suggested by the form so often taken by branches of trees, which seem to have been the first crosses that were employed. It was certainly customary to hang animals on trees. Cicero (Rabir. 3) appears to consider hanging on a tree and crucifixion as of the same import, and Seneca (Ep. 101) uses similar language. (See above.) Trees are known to have been used as crosses (Tertull. Ap. 8:16), and to every kind of hanging which bore a resemblance to crucifixion, such as that of Prometheus, Andromeda, etc., the name was commonly applied. Among the Scythians, Persians, Carthaginians, Greeks, Romans, and the ancient Germans, traces are found of the cross as an instrument of punishment. The sign of the cross is found as a holy symbol among several ancient nations, who may accordingly be named, in the language of Tertullian, “crucis religiosos,” devotees of the cross. Among the Indians and Egyptians the cross often appears in their ceremonies, sometimes in the shape of the letter T, at others in this shape +. At Susa, Ker Porter saw a stone cut with hieroglyphics and cruciform inscriptions, on which in one corner was the figure of a cross, thus, $. The cross, he says, is generally understood to be symbolical of the divinity or eternal life, and certainly a cross was to be seen in the temple of Serapis as the Egyptian emblem of the future life, as may be learned in Sozomen and Rufinus. Porter also states that the Egyptian priests urged its being found on the walls of their temple of Serapis as an argument with the victorious army of Theodosius to save it from destruction. From the numerous writings on this subject by La Croze, Jablonski, Zoega, Visconti, Pococke, Pluche, Petit Radel, and others, the symbol of the cross appears to have been most various in its significations. Sometimes it is the Phallus, sometimes the planet Venus, or the Nilometer, or an emblem of the four elements, or the seasons (Creuzer's Symbolik, p. 168-9). It is therefore not surprising that ancient and even modern Christian writers should on this subject have indulged in some degree of refinement and mysticism. Justin Martyr (Apol. 1, § 72) says, “The sign of the cross is impressed upon the whole of Nature. There is hardly a handicraftsman but uses the figure of it among the implements of his industry. It forms a part of man himself, as may be seen when he raises his hands in prayer.” In like manner Minutius Felix (c. 29): “Even Nature itself seems to have formed this figure for us. We have a natural cross on every ship whose sails are spread, in every yoke that man forms, in every outspreading of his arms in prayer. Thus is the cross found both in the arrangements of Nature and among the heathen.”
We may tabulate thus the various descriptions of cross. (Lipsius, De Cruce, 1; Godwyn's Moses and Aaron, lib. 5, cap. 9, and Carpzov's Annotations thereon):
1. The crux simplex, or mere stake “of one single piece without transom,” was probably the original of the rest. Sometimes it was merely driven through the man's chest, but at other times it was driven longitudinally (Hesych. s.v. σκόλοψ), coming out at the mouth (Seneca, Ep. xiv), a method of punishment called ἀνασκινδύλευσις, or infixio. The afixio consisted merely of tying the criminal to the stake (ad palum deligare, Liv. 26:13), from which he hung by his arms: the process is described in the little poem of Ausonius, “Cupido crucifixus.” Trees were naturally convenient for this purpose, and we read of their being applied to such use in the Martyrologies. Tertullian, too, tells us (Apol. 8:16) that the priests of Saturn were thus punished by Tiberius (comp. Tacit. Germ. 12).
2. The crux decussata is called St.Andrew's cross, although on no good grounds, since, according to some, he was killed with the sword; and Hippolytus says that he was crucified upright on an olive-tree. It is in the shape of the Greek letter X (Jerome, in Jeremiah 31; Isidor. Orig. 1:3). Hence Justin Martyr (Dial. c. Tryph. p. 200) quotes Plato's expression (ἐχίαζν ἀυτὸν ἐν τῷ πάντι) with reference to the cross. The fathers, with their usual luxuriant imagination, discover types of this kind of cross in Jacob's blessing of Joseph's sons (χέρσιν ἐνηλλαγμέναις; comp. Tert. de Baptismo, 8); in the anointing of priests “decussatively” (Sir T. Browne, Garden of Cyrus); for the Rabbis say that priests were distinctively thus anointed (כמין כי, i.e. adformam X Graecorum, Schottgen's Hor. Heb. et Talm. 4, ad f.); and in the crossing of the hands over the head of the goat on the day of expiation (Targum. Jonath. ad Lev_16:21, etc.).
3. The crux commissa, or St. Anthony's cross (so called from being embroidered on that saint's cope; Mrs. Jameson's Sacred Art, 1, 35), was in the shape of a T. Hence Lucian (in his Δίκη φωνηέντων) jocosely derives σταυρός from the letter Ταῦ, and makes mankind accuse it bitterly for suggesting to tyrants the instrument of torture (Jud. Vocal. 12). This shape is often alluded to as “the mystical Tau” (Tertullian, adv. Marc. 3, 22; Jerome, in Ezech. 9, etc.). As that letter happens to stand for 300, opportunity was given for more elaborate trifling: thus the 300 cubits of the ark are considered typical (Clemens Alexand. Strom. 6; S. Paulin. Ephesians 2); and even Abraham's 318 servants (!); since 318 is represented by τιη (Barnabas, Ep. 9; Clemens Alex. Strom. 6; Ambrose, Prol. in l. i. de Fide.; see Pearson, On the Creed, art. 4).
A variety of this cross (the crux ansata, “crosses with circles on their heads”) is found in the sculptures from Khorsabad and the ivories from Nimrud. M. Lajard (Observations sur la Croix ansee) refers it to the Assyrian symbol of divinity, the winged figure in a circle; our Egyptian antiquaries quite reject the theory (Layard's Nineveh, 2:170, note). In the Egyptian sculptures, a similar object, called a crux ansata, is constantly borne by divinities, and is variously called “the key of the Nile” (Dr. Young in Encycl. Britan.), “the character of Venus,” and more correctly (as by Lacroze) “the emblem of life.” Indeed this was the old explanation (Sozomen, Hist. Eccl. 6:15; so, too, Rufinus [2. 29], who says it was one of the “ἱερατικαὶ vel sacerdotales litterae”). “The Egyptians thereby expressed the powers and motion of the spirit of the world, and the diffusion thereof upon the celestial and elemental nature” (Sir T. Browne, Garden of Cyrus). This, too, was the signification given to it by the Christian converts in the army of Theodosius, when they remarked it on the temple of Serapis, according to the story mentioned in Suidas. The same symbol has been also found among the Copts, and (perhaps accidentally) among the Indians and Persians.
4. The crux immissa (or Latin cross) differed from the former by the projection of the upright post (δόρυ ὕψηλον, or stipes) above the transverse beam (κέρας ἐγκάρσιον, or patibulum, Eusebius, de V. Constant. 1:31). That this was the kind of cross on which our Lord died is obvious (among other reasons) from the mention of the “title” (q.v.), as placed above our Lord's head, and from the almost unanimous tradition; it is repeatedly found on the coins and columns of Constantine. Hence ancient and modern imagination has been chiefly tasked to find symbols for this sort of cross, and has been eminently successful. They find it typified, for instance, in the attitude of Moses during the battle of Rephidim (Exo_17:12), saying that he was bidden to take this posture by the Spirit (Barnabas, Ep. 12; Justin Mart. Dial. c. Tryph. 89; Tertull. adv. Marc. 3, 18). Firmicius Maternus (de Errore, 21) says (from the Talmudists?) that Moses made a cross of his rod in order to secure greater success (ut facilius impetraret quod magnopere postularet, crucem sibi fecit ex virgo). He also fantastically applies to the cross expressions in Hab_3:3-5; Isa_9:6, etc. Other supposed types are Jacob's ladder (Jerome, Com. in Psalms 91; Augustine, Serm. de Temp. 79); the paschal lamb, pierced by transverse spits (Justin Martyr, Dial. c. Tryph. 40); and “the Hebrew Tenupha, or ceremony of their oblations waved by the priest into the four quarters of the world after the form of a cross” (Vitringa, Obs. Sacr. 2:9; Schöttgen, 1. c.). A truer type (Joh_3:14) is the elevation (Chald. יקיפות) of the fiery serpent (Num_21:8-9). For some strange applications of texts to this figure, see Cypr. Testim. 2:20 sq. In Mat_5:18, the phrase “a single jot or tittle” is also made to represent a cross (Theophyl. ad loc., etc.). To the four ἄκοα or extremities of the cross they also applied the four dimensions of Eph_3:17 (as Gregory Nyss. and Augustine, Ephesians 120); and another of their fancies was that there was a mystical significance in this four-angled piece of wood (Nonnius, in Joh_19:18), because it pointed to the four corners of the world (Sedul. 3). In all nature the sacred sign was found to be indispensable (Justin Mart. Apol. 1:72), especially in such things as involve dignity, energy, or deliverance; as: the actions of digging, plowing, etc., the human face, the antennce of a ship in full sail, etc. (Jerome, in Marc. 11; Minutius Fel. Oct. 29). Similar analogies are repeated elsewhere (Firm. Maten. de Errore, 21; Tertull. adv. Nat. 1:12; Apol. 16; de Coron. Mil. 3); and, in answer to the sneers of those to whom the cross was “foolishness,” they were considered sufficient proof of the universality of this sign, both in nature and religion. The types adduced from Scripture were valuable to silence the difficulties of the Jews, to whom, in consequence of Deu_21:22, the cross was an especial “stumbling-block” (Tertullian, adv. Jud_1:9). Many such fancies (e.g. the harmlessness of cruciform flowers, the southern cross, etc.) are collected in Communications with the Unseen World.
Besides the four corners (ἄκρα, or apices, Tert.) of the cross was a fifth (πῆγμα), projecting out of the central stein, on which the body of the sufferer rested (Justin Mart. Tryph. 91, who [nore suo] compares it to the horn of a rhinoceros; sedilis excessus, Tertull. adv. Nat. 1:12; Iren. adv. Haeres. 1:12). This was to prevent the weight of the body from tearing awiay the hands, since it was impossible that it “should rest upon nothing but four great wounds” (Jeremy Taylor, Life of Christ, 3, 15:2). This projection is probably alluded to in the famous lines of Maecenas (ap. Sen. Ep. 101). Lipsius, however, thinks otherwise (De Cruce, 1:6). Whether there was also a ὑποπόδιον, or support to the feet (as we see in pictures), is doubtful. Gregory of Tours mentions it; but he is the earliest authority, and has no weight (Voss, Harm. Passion. 2:7, 28). SEE LABARUM.
III. Accessories of the Cross. — An inscription, titulus or elogium (ἐπιγραφή, Luke 23; αἰτία, Matthew 27; t); ἡ ἐπιγραφὴ τὴς αἰτίας, Mark; τίτλος, John 19; Qui causam poenoe indicavit, Sueton. Cal. 32; πίναξ, Euseb.; γράμματα τὴν αἰτίαν τῆς θανατώσεως δηλοῦντα, Dion Cass. liv. 3; πτυχίον ἐπίγραμμα ἔχον, Hesych.; לוּח), was generally placed above the person's head, and briefly expressed his guilt (e.g. ο῏υτός ἐστιν ῎Ατταλος ὁ Χριστίανος,” Euseb. v. 1; Impie locutus parmularius,” Sueton. Dom. 10), and generally was carried before the criminal (praecedente titulo, Sueton.). It was covered with white gypsum, and the letters were black; hence Sozomen calls it λεύκωμα (Hist. Ecc_2:1), and Nicephorus a λευκὴ σανίς (Hist. Eccl. 8:29). But Nicquetus (Tit. Sanct. Crucis, 1:6) says it was white, with red letters. (See below.)
It is a question whether binding or absolute pinning to the cross was the more common method. In favor of the first are the expressions ligare and deligare; the description in Ausonius (Cupido Crucif.); the Egyptian custom (Xenoph Eph_4:2); the mention by Pliny (28. 11) of spartum e cruce among magical implements; and the allusion to crucifixion noted by the fathers in Joh_19:24 (Theophyl. and Tertull.). On the other side we have the expression προσηλοῦσθαι, and numberless authorities (Senec. De Vit. Beata, 19; Artemidor. Oneirocr., in several passages; Apul. Met. 3, 60; Plautus, Mostel. 2:1, 13, et passim). That our Lord was nailed, according to prophecy, is certain Joh_20:25; Joh_20:27, etc.; Zec_12:10; Psa_22:16; comp. Tertull. adv. Marc. 3, 19, etc.; Sept. ὤρυξαν; although the Jews maintain that in the latter text כארי, “like a lion,” is the true reading; Sixt. Senensis, Bibl. Sact. 8:5, p. 640). It is, however, extremely probable that both methods were used at once (see Lucan, 6:547 sq.; and Hilary, De Trin. x). We may add that in the crucifixion (as it is sometimes called, Tertull. adv. Marc. 1:1; comp. Manil. de Androm. v) of Prometheus, AEschylus, besides the nails, speaks of a girth (μασχαλιστήρ, Prom. 79). When either method was used alone, the tying was considered more painful (as we find in the Martyrologies), since it was a more tedious suffering (diutinus cruciatus).
It is doubtful whether three or four nails were employed. The passage in Plautus (Most. 2:1, 13) is, as Lipsius (De Cruce, 2:9) shows, indecisive. Nonnus speaks of the two feet (ὁμοπλοκἐες) being fastened with one nail (ἄζυγι γόμφῳ), and Gregory Naz. (de Christ. pat.) calls the cross “three- nailed” (ξύλον τρίσηλον); hence on gold and silver crosses the nails were represented by one ruby or carbuncle at each extremity (Mrs. Jameson, 1. c.). In the “invention” of the cross, Socrates (Hist. Ev. 1:17) only mentions the hand-nails; and that only two were found has been argued from the τὰ μέν, τὰ δέ (instead of τοὺς μέν) in Theodoret (Hist. Ev. 1:17). Romish writers, however, generally follow Gregory of Tours (de Glor. Mart. 6) in maintaining four, which may indeed be implied by the plural in Cyprian (de Passione), who also mentions three more, used to nail on the title. Cyprian is a very good authority, because he had often been a witness of executions. (See below.)
Besides the copious monograph of Lipsius (De Cruce, Antwerp, 1596; Amst. 1670; Brunsw. 1640), there are works by Salmasius (de Cruce, Epp. 3); Kippingius (de Cruce et Cruciariis, Brem. 1671); Bosius (de Cruce triumphante et gloriosa, Antw. 1617); Gretser (de Cruce Christi); and Bartholinus (Hypomnemata de Cruce); very much may also be gleaned from the learned notes )e bishop Pearson (On the Creed, art. 4). SEE CRUCIFIXION.
IV. The Cross as a Symbol. — The word cross was early used in Roman literature to represent any torture, pain, or misfortune, or anything causing pain or misfortune. Christ adopted this use of the word when he says (of course before his crucifixion had taken place, or was foreseen by his followers) that they must be willing to take up their cross and follow him (Mat_16:24), meaning that they must be willing to endure such sufferings as the service of God may bring. After the death and resurrection of Christ, the cross is spoken of, especially in the epistles of Paul, as the representative of Christ's whole sufferings from his birth to his death (Eph_2:16; Heb_12:2), and for the whole doctrines of the Gospel (1Co_1:18; Gal_6:14). The opposers of the Gospel are spoken of as enemies of the cross (Php_3:18). As a symbol of Christianity, its doctrines, and its duties, the cross has become a familiar figure of speech in the expression of experimental Christianity, in the preaching of Christian ministers, and in the hymns and songs of Christian poets. Very early in the history of the Church it became the custom for Christians to make the sign of the cross. SEE CROSS, SIGN OF.
That the early Christians had a high regard for the cross is shown by the replies that Tertullian and Octavius made to the pagans who charged Christians with worshipping the cross. It is not easy, however, to fix the date at which Christians commenced to have material representations of the cross. There exist no earlier preserved examples than some rings of stone, with the cross engraved on them, the style of which seems to indicate that they were made before the time of Constantine. The martyr Procopius and a Christian soldier named Orestes are said to have had crosses attached to their necks before going to their execution. A single example of the crux commissa, T, is preserved, of the date A.D. 370. On tombs, no cross of any kind is found before the same century. No crux immissa, +, or Greek cross, +, is found earlier than the fifth century. As far as yet examined, no cross is found of very early date in the Catacombs, those existing there having been traced by pilgrims centuries later. Such signs of the cross as properly belong to the monogram of Christ (q.v.) date back for their origin to the time of Constantine. Ancient texts have often spoken of this monogram under the name of cross, giving rise to many misunderstandings. In the more distant provinces of the Roman empire, as in Carthage, marbles marked by the cross have been found of the fourth century. Zeno of Verona, made bishop in 362, states that he placed a T cross on a basilica which he built. This same cross appears on the coins and medals of the emperor Valentinian I (died 375), and on bronzes struck by Constantine at Aquileia and at Treves, although many consider that these were Egyptian in origin, though adopted by the Christians. Constantine is stated to have placed a cross of gold on the tomb of St. Peter in the Vatican. Our Lord resting on a cross is seen on the tombstone of Probus and Proba (A.D. 355). Paulinus of Nola (died 432) had in his church paintings of crosses surrounded by crowns. Other similar ones are found in old mosaics, as in those of San Vitale of Ravenna (A.D. 547). Over the summit of an arch are two angels holding a crown, in the midst of which is a cross adorned with gems. Some diptychs of the fifth century also contain such crosses. The cross on tombstones was an attribute of a martyr, and on the early sarcophagi is specially used to designate St. Peter, as he died on the cross. After his vision of the cross in the heavens, Constantine (q.v.) changed the standard of the Roman empire to a cross. SEE LABARUM. From the sixth century the consuls began to have a cross on their scepters. Valentinian III and his queen Eudoxia were the first (A.D. 445) to wear a cross on their crown. About A.D. 400 the cross called crux stationalis was first borne at the head of processions. A number of Christian cities and villages in the neighborhood of Antioch, Aleppo, and Apamea, which were suddenly deserted on the invasion of Syria by the Saracens, and which remain in the form in which they were left by their inhabitants, show how extremely general had become the custom at that time — in the early part of the sixth century — to paint the cross and the monogram of Christ, αXω, over the doors, windows, posts, and on the walls of the houses.
It was also used on all domestic objects, as weights, vases, chairs, and all articles of furniture, and was put on ships to keep off disaster and the evil eye. After the fall of the Roman empire, when the labarum ceased to be used, the ensign of many cities became a real cross. The cross-bearer often held two lighted torches, under which were suspended by a chain the letters A and Q. These cross-standards were soon decorated with great magnificence, containing scenes from the Old and New Testament, or busts of sacred or patriotic persons, either painted or sculptured, or adorned with gold and precious stones. This ensign was then borne into the thickest of the battle, being the rallying-point for the army, while a priest on the cart on which the ensign or gonfalone was placed, cheered on the soldiers to fight, or declared absolution to the dying. Many Christian kings on the eve of battle, or of any great enterprise, erected a cross, and, bowing before it, offered up prayer to God for success. Oswald had a wooden cross erected before he fought with Cadwallon, his soldiers all kneeling devoutly, while he himself held the cross as the earth was stamped down around it. The stones that formed the cromlechs (q.v.) were sometimes placed in the form of a cross, it is not known whether originally with any significance. But after the introduction of Christianity in England and Ireland these crosses were appropriated as Christian monuments, and, like other crosses erected for the purpose, served as marks of the boundary of property, of parishes, and sanctuaries; as monuments of battles, murder or other crimes, or disastrous events; to indicate places of public gathering to hear proclamations, sermons, and prayers; to mark the spot where the corpse of any famous person rested on its way to interment, “that passers-by might pray for his soul;” to mark the spot where some person had been delivered from great danger; to line the way to a cemetery or a church; and at cross- roads in the country, or in a market-place, to furnish protection from a passing storm. (Beggars often took their station at these crosses, asking alms in the name of Jesus, giving rise to the expression, “He begs like a cripple at a cross.”) Crosses were sometimes erected on the tops of houses, tenants thus claiming the privileges of templars-hospitallers, of being free from the claims of their lords or landlords. Many of these crosses were very costly, and built in the highest architectural taste of the age. Political and religious upheavals have removed many of these crosses; time has destroyed others. Of the 360 crosses formerly existing in the small but historic island of Iona, but one now remains. Of the numerous series by the road leading from Paris to St. Denis, where the kings of France were buried, all are destroyed. Of the fifteen famous crosses that marked the resting-places of the corpse of queen Eleanor (died A.D. 1290), on its removal from Grantham to Westminster, but three now remain. Among the most famous preaching-crosses were those of St. Paul's in London and of Spitalfields, London, where the noted Spital Easter sermons were preached. Crosses are used freely on the vestments of priests, and on all parts of the interior and exterior of Greek, Armenian, and Romish houses of worship, and other ecclesiastical establishments. The Church of England and the Lutheran Church use them to crown their houses of worship; some other Protestant denominations use them thus at the discretion of the individual society; while others still, especially those who hold the views of the original Puritans, reject the use of the visible and material cross in any form or place. — Those Christian bodies, that use the cross freely, place it upon the tombs of the dead. The cross we have hitherto spoken of is the passion cross — the representative of Christ's suffering. In the Catacombs, Christ is represented as coming forth from his tomb bearing a cross, the symbol of his triumph over death, and of the ultimate triumph of his doctrines. This triumphal cross, also called Cross of the Resurrection, never bearing Christ upon it as a crucifix, is used as a symbol of the authority and jurisdiction of different officials in certain branches of the Church. See CROSIER.
V. The Cross as a Signature. — As early as the sixth century had it become the custom to put three crosses near the signature of important documents, these having the value of an oath on the part of the signer. Priests never omitted to add it to their signature, and bishops, as a sign of the dignity of their office, placed it before their signature. In diplomatic documents, crosses were used extensively as early as the fifth century. The appropriate use of crosses (σταυρολογία) was an important part in diplomatic knowledge. They were sometimes the ordinary cross, or the St. Andrew's cross, X, the starry cross, the rhomboid cross, or of other ornamental forms. They were usually made with black ink. The Byzantine emperors used red ink till they were imitated by other sovereigns, when they adopted the green color. The Anglo-Saxon kings used a golden cross, dispensing with the signature and the seal. Blue and silver crosses are also met with. The crosses were marked with a stile or pen, or were stamped, or were sometimes made of a thin plate of ivory, bone, or metal. By tradition the cross is now used as a signature, but only by those who cannot write. Crosses were often presented to cloisters by pious visitors, and are preserved in many of their manuscripts. They were used to mark the beginning and end of books, letters, documents, of chapters, paragraphs, references, and critical remarks in books. They are especially used in many countries at the head of letters announcing a death. The cross was early adopted for the groundplan of churches. In the later Gothic period the apsis was turned out of the line of the axis of the nave to represent the drooping of the head of Christ at his death.

CYCLOPEDIA OF BIBLICAL, THEOLOGICAL AND ECCLESIASTICAL
press 1895.





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