Education
VIEW:54 DATA:01-04-2020
EDUCATION.In the importance which they attached to the education of the young, it may fairly be claimed that the Hebrews were facile princeps among the nations of antiquity. Indeed, if the ultimate aim of education be the formation of character, the Hebrew ideals and methods will bear comparison with the best even of modern times. In character Hebrew education was predominantly, one might almost say exclusively, religious and ethical. Its fundamental principle may be expressed in the familiar words: The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge (Pro_1:7). Yet it recognized that conduct was the true test of character; in the words of Simeon, the son of Gamaliel, that not learning but doing is the chief thing.
As to the educational attainments of the Hebrews before the conquest of Canaan, it is useless to speculate. On their settlement in Canaan, however, they were brought into contact with a civilization which for two thousand years or more had been under the influence of Babylonia and in a less degree of Egypt. The language of Babylonia, with its complicated system of wedge-writing, had for long been the medium of communication not only between the rulers of the petty states of Canaan and the great powers outside its borders, but even, as we now know from Sellins discoveries at Taanach, between these rulers themselves. This implies the existence of some provision for instruction in reading and writing the difficult Babylonian script. Although in this early period such accomplishments were probably confined to a limited number of high officials and professional scribes, the incident in Gideons experience, Jdg_8:14 (where we must render with RVm [Note: Revised Version margin.] wrote down), warns us against unduly restricting the number of those able to read and write in the somewhat later period of the Judges. The more stable political conditions under the monarchy, and in particular the development of the administration and the growth of commerce under Solomon, must undoubtedly have furthered the spread of education among all classes.
Of schools and schoolmasters, however, there is no evidence till after the Exile, for the expression schools of the prophets has no Scripture warrant. Only once, indeed, is the word school to be found even in NT (Act_19:9), and then only of the lecture-room of a Greek teacher in Ephesus. The explanation of this silence is found in the fact that the Hebrew child received his education in the home, with his parents as his only instructors. Although he grew up ignorant of much that every school-boy knows to-day, he must not on that account be set down as uneducated. He had been instructed, first of all, in the truths of his ancestral religion (see Deu_6:20-25 and elsewhere); and in the ritual of the recurring festivals there was provided for him object-lessons in history and religion (Exo_12:26 f., Exo_13:8; Exo_13:14). In the traditions of his family and racesome of which are still preserved in the older parts of OThe had a unique storehouse of the highest ideals of faith and conduct, and these after all are the things that matter.
Descending the stream of history, we reach an epoch-making event in the history of education, not less than of religion, among the Jews, in the assembly convened by Ezra and Nehemiah (Neh_8:1 ff.), at which the people pledged themselves to accept the book of the law of Moses as the norm of their life in all its relations. Henceforward the Jews were pre-eminently, in Mohammeds phrase, the people of the Book. But if the Jewish community was henceforth to regulate its whole life, not according to the living word of priest and prophet, but according to the requirements of a written law, it was indispensable that provision should be made for the instruction of all classes in this law. To this practical necessity is due the origin of the synagogue (wh. see), which, from the Jewish point of view, was essentially a meeting-place for religious instruction, and, indeed, is expressly so named by Philo. In NT also the preacher or expounder in the synagogue is invariably said to teach (Mat_4:23, Mar_1:21, and passim), and the education of youth continues to the last to be associated with the synagogue (see below). The situation created by this new zeal for the Law has been admirably described by Wellhausen: The Bible became the spelling-book, the community a school. Piety and education were inseparable; whoever could not read was no true Jew. We may say that in this way were created the beginnings of popular education.
This new educational movement was under the guidance of a body of students and teachers of the Law known as the Sôpherim (lit. book-men) or scribes, of whom Ezra is the typical example (Ezr_7:6). Alongside these, if not identical with them, as many hold, we find an influential class of religious and moral teachers, known as the Sages or the Wise, whose activity culminates in the century preceding the fall of the Persian empire (b.c. 430330). The arguments for the identity in all important respects of the early scribes and the sages are given by the present writer in Hastings DB [Note: Dictionary of the Bible.] i. 648; but even if the two classes were originally distinct, there can be no doubt that by the time of Jesus hen Sira, the author of Ecclesiasticus (cir. b.c. 180170), himself a scribe and the last of the sages, they had become merged in one.
To appreciate the religious and ethical teaching of the sages, we have only to open the Book of Proverbs. Here life is pictured as a discipline, the Hebrew word for which is found thirty times in this book. The whole of life, it has been said, is here considered from the view-point of a pædagogic institution. God educates men, and men educate each other (O. Holtzmann).
With the coming of the Greeks a new educational force in the shape of Hellenistic culture entered Palestinea force which made itself felt in many directions in the pre-Maccabean age. From a reference in Josephus (Ant. XII. iv. 6) it may be inferred that schools on the Greek model had been established in Jerusalem itself before b.c. 220. It was somewhere in this period, too, that the preacher could say: Of making many books there is no end; and much study is a weariness of the flesh (Ecc_12:12)reflexions which necessarily presuppose a wide-spread interest in intellectual pursuits. The edict of Antiochus Epiphanes at a later date (1Ma_1:57) equally implies a considerable circulation of the Torah among the people, with the ability to profit by its study.
Passing now, as this brief sketch requires, to the period of Jewish history that lies between the triumph of the Maccabees and the end of the Jewish State in a.d. 70, we find a traditionthere is no valid reason for rejecting it as untrustworthywhich illustrates the extent to which elementary education, at least, was fostered under the later Maccabean princes. A famous scribe of the period (cir. b.c. 75), Simon ben-Shetach, brother of Queen Alexandra, is said to have got a law passed ordaining that the children shall attend the elementary school. This we understand on various grounds to mean, not that these schools were first instituted, but that attendance at them was henceforth to be compulsory. The elementary school, termed the house of the Book (i.e. Scripture), in opposition to the house of study or college of the scribes (see below), was always closely associated with the synagogue. In the smaller places, indeed, the same building served for both.
The elementary teachers, as we may call them, formed the lowest rank in the powerful guild of the scribes. They are the doctors (lit. teachers) of the law, who, in our Lords day, were to be found in every village of Galilee and Judæa (Luk_5:17 RV [Note: Revised Version.] ), and who figure so frequently in the Gospels. Attendance at the elementary school began at the age of six. Already the boy had learned to repeat the Shema (Hear, O Israel, etc., Deu_6:4), selected proverbs and verses from the Psalms. He now began to learn to read. His only textbooks were the rolls of the sacred Scriptures, especially the roll of the Law, the opening chapters of Leviticus being usually the first to be taken in hand. After the letters were mastered, the teacher copied a verse which the child had already learned by heart, and taught him to identify the individual words. The chief feature of the teaching was learning by rote, and that audibly, for the Jewish teachers were thorough believers in the Latin maxim, repetitio mater studiorum. The pupils sat on the floor at the teachers feet, as did Saul at the feet of Gamaliel (Act_22:3).
The subjects taught were the three R [Note: Redactor.] sreading, writing, and arithmetic, the last in a very elementary form. The childs first attempts at writing were probably done, as in the Greek schools of the period, on sherds of pottery; from these he would be promoted to a wax tablet (Luk_1:63 RV [Note: Revised Version.] ), on which he wrote with a pointed style or metal instrument, very much as if one wrote on thickly buttered bread with a small stiletto. Only after considerable progress had been made would he finally reach the dignity of papyrus.
For the mass of young Jews of the male sex, for whom alone public provision was made, the girls being still restricted to the tuition of the home, the teaching of the primary school sufficed. Those, however, who wished to be themselves teachers, or otherwise to devote themselves to the professional study of the Law, passed on to the higher schools or colleges above mentioned. At the beginning of our era the two most important of these colleges were taught by the famous doctors of the law, Hillel and Shammai. It was a grandson of the former, Gamaliel I., who, thirty years later, numbered Saul of Tarsus among his students (Act_22:3). In the Beth hammidrash (house of study) the exclusive subjects of study were the interpretation of the OT, and the art of applying the regulations of the Torah, by means of certain exegetical canons, to the minutest details of the life of the time.
A. R. S. Kennedy.
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible
Edited by James Hastings, D.D. Published in 1909
Chiefly in the law of God (Exo_12:26; Exo_13:8; Exo_13:14; Deu_4:5; Deu_4:9-10; Deu_6:2; Deu_6:7; Deu_6:20; Deu_11:19; Deu_11:21; Act_22:3; 2Ti_3:15). The Book of Proverbs inculcates on parents, as to their children, the duty of disciplinary instruction and training in the word of God. This was the ONE book of national education in the reformations undertaken by Jehoshaphat and Josiah (2Ch_17:7-9; 2Ch_34:30). The priests' and Levites' duty especially was to teach the people (2Ch_15:3; Lev_10:11; Mal_2:7; Neh_8:2; Neh_8:8-9; Neh_8:13; Jer_18:18).
The Mishna says that parents ought to teach their children some trade, and he who did not virtually taught his child to steal. The prophets, or special public authoritative teachers, were trained in schools or colleges (Amo_7:14). "Writers," or musterers general, belonging to Zebulun, who enrolled recruits and wrote the names of those who went to war, are mentioned (Jdg_5:14). "Scribes of the host" (Jer_52:25) appear in the Assyrian bas-reliefs, writing down the various persons or objects brought to them, so that there is less exaggeration than in the Egyptian representations of battle. Seraiah was David's scribe or secretary, and Jehoshaphat, son of Ahilud, was "recorder" or writer of chronicles, historiographer (2Sa_8:16-17); Shebun was Hezekiah's scribe (2Ki_18:37).
The learned, according to the rabbis, were called "sons of the noble," and took precedence at table. Boys at five years of age, says the Mishna, were to begin reading Scripture, at ten they were to begin reading the Mishna, and at thirteen years of age they were subject to the whole law (Luk_2:46); at fifteen they entered study of the Gemara. The prophetic schools included females such as Huldah (2Ki_22:14). The position and duties of females among the Jews were much higher than among other Orientals (Pro_31:10-31; Luk_8:2-3; Luk_10:38, etc.; Act_13:50; 2Ti_1:5).
Fausset's Bible Dictionary
By Andrew Robert Fausset, co-Author of Jamieson, Fausset and Brown's 1888.
Education. There is little trace among the Hebrews in earlier times of education in any other subjects than the law. The wisdom, therefore, and instruction, of which so much is said in the book of Proverbs, are to be understood chiefly of moral and religious discipline, imparted, according to the direction of the law, by the teaching and under the example of parents.
(But Solomon himself wrote treatises on several scientific subjects, which must have been studied in those days). In later times, the prophecies and comments on them, as well as on the earlier Scriptures, together with other subjects, were studied. Parents were required to teach their children some trade.
(Girls also went to schools, and women generally among the Jews were treated with greater equality to men than in any other ancient nation). Previous to the captivity, the chief depositaries of learning were the schools or colleges, from which in most cases proceeded that succession of public teachers who at various times endeavored to reform the moral and religious conduct of both rulers and people. Besides the prophetical schools, instruction was given by the priests in the Temple and elsewhere. See Schools.
Smith's Bible Dictionary
By Dr. William Smith.Published in 1863
In early times there were no schools such as we know them today, and most children were educated at home. It was the responsibility of parents to teach their children the history and social customs of their nation, to instruct them in right living and to prepare them for adult life. This preparation involved teaching and training in reading, writing, crafts, trades and household work (Exo_13:8; Exo_13:14; Deu_4:9-10; Pro_1:8; Pro_4:1-9; Pro_31:1). In the case of Israelites, parents had a particular responsibility to teach their children the religion given them by God (Deu_6:6-9). Christian parents have a similar responsibility (Eph_6:4; 2Ti_1:5; 2Ti_3:15; see FAMILY).
People of higher social status often received a more formal education through private instructors who were appointed as the childrens guardians (2Ki_10:1; Act_7:22; Gal_3:24-25). Institutions known as wisdom schools were later established for the teaching and training of upper class people in philosophical thought (Ecc_12:9; Ecc_12:11; Jer_18:18; see WISDOM LITERATURE). Prophets also had schools for the training of their disciples (2Ki_2:3; 2Ki_4:38; Isa_8:16; see PROPHET).
For ordinary Israelites, the highest academic instruction they received was the teaching of the law of Moses. Originally the priests were the teachers, but by New Testament times the scribes had taken over most of the teaching activity (Deu_33:10; Ezr_7:6; Ezr_7:10; Neh_8:1-4; Neh_8:8; Mat_23:2-3; see SCRIBES). The power of the scribes had developed along with the establishment of places known as synagogues, which became centres of instruction for Jewish people in general (Mat_4:23; Luk_4:16-21; see SYNAGOGUE).
Jewish men could, if they wished, receive a more thorough education in the Jewish law by becoming students of learned Jewish teachers (Joh_3:10; Act_5:34; see RABBI). They usually sat at the feet of their teachers (Act_22:3), and learnt by memorizing facts and having question-and-answer sessions with their teachers (Deu_31:19; Luk_2:46). These teachers often taught in the temple (Mat_26:55; Luk_2:46; cf. Luk_19:47). (Concerning teachers in the church see TEACHER.)
In addition to education in this traditional religious setting, education in a Greek philosophical setting was also common in New Testament times. This created difficulties for Christians, because of the conflicts between values taught in this kind of education and values taught in Christian homes and churches (1Co_1:20-25; Col_2:8).
Such conflicts will always exist. Christians may consider that when a government accepts responsibility for the education of its citizens, it is fulfilling part of its God-given task. It is helping provide for societys well-being (Rom_13:4). But this does not relieve Christian parents and church leaders of their responsibilities concerning the proper instruction, development and growth of those within their care (Eph_4:13-15; Eph_6:4; 2Ti_3:14-17; Heb_5:14; Heb_13:17; see also ETHICS).
Bridgeway Bible Dictionary by Don Fleming
PRINTER 1990.
ed-ū̇-kā?shun:
I. Education Defined
II. Education in Early Israel
1. Nomadic and Agricultural Periods
2. The Monarchical Period
3. Deuteronomic Legislation
4. Reading and Writing
III. Education in Later Israel
1. Educational Significance of the Prophets
2. The Book of the Law
3. Wise Men or Sages
4. The Book of Proverbs
5. Scribes and Levites
6. Greek and Roman Influences
IV. Education in New Testament Times
1. Subject Matter of Instruction
2. Method and Aims
3. Valuable Results of Jewish Education
4. The Pre?minence of Jesus as a Teacher
5. Educational Work of the Early Disciples
Literature
I. Education Defined
By education we understand the sum total of those processes whereby society transmits from one generation to the next its accumulated social, intellectual and religious experience and heritage. In part these processes are informal and incidental, arising from participation in certain forms of social life and activity which exist on their own account and not for the sake of their educative influence upon the rising generation. The more formal educative processes are designed (1) to give the immature members of society a mastery over the symbols and technique of civilization, including language (reading and writing), the arts, the sciences, and religion, and (2) to enlarge the fund of individual and community knowledge beyond the measure furnished by the direct activities of the immediate environment (compare Dewey, article on ?Education? in Monroe's CE; compare Butler, ME).
Religious education among ancient and modern peoples alike reveals clearly this twofold aspect of all education. On its informal side it consists in the transmission of religious ideas and experience by means of the reciprocal processes of imitation and example; each generation, by actually participating in the religious activities and ceremonies of the social group, imbibing as it were the spirit and ideals of the preceding generation as these are modified by the particular economic and industrial conditions under which the entire process takes place. Formal religious education begins with the conscious and systematic effort on the part of the mature members of a social group (tribe, nation, or religious fellowship) to initiate the immature members by means of solemn rites and ceremonies, or patient training, or both, into the mysteries and high privileges of their own religious fellowship and experience. As regards both the content and form of this instruction, these will in every case be determined by the type and stage of civilization reflected in the life, occupations, habits and customs of the people. Among primitive races educational method is simpler and the content of formal instruction less differentiated than on higher culture levels (Ames, PRE). All education is at first religious in the sense that religious motives and ideas predominate in the educational efforts of all primitive peoples. The degree to which religion continues pre?minent in the educational system of a progressive nation depends upon the vitality of its religion and upon the measure of efficiency and success with which from the first that religion is instilled into the very bone and sinew of each succeeding generation. Here lies the explanation of the religious-educational character of Hebrew national life, and here, too, the secret of Israel's incomparable influence upon the religious and educational development of the world. The religion of Israel was a vital religion and it was a teaching religion (Kent, GTJC).
II. Education in Early Israel
In their social and national development the Hebrews passed through several clearly marked cultural stages which it is important to note in connection with their educational history. At the earliest point at which the Old Testament gives us any knowledge of them, they, like their ancestors, were nomads and shepherds. Their chief interest centered in the flocks and herds from which they gained a livelihood, and in the simple, useful arts that seem gradually to have become hereditary in certain families. With the settlement of the Hebrew tribes in Palestine and their closer contact with Canaanitish culture, a more established agricultural life with resulting changes in social and religious institutions gradually superseded the nomadic stage of culture. A permanent dwelling-place made possible, as the continual warfare of gradual conquest made necessary, a closer federation of the tribes, which ultimately resulted in the establishment of the monarchy under David (W. R. Smith, RS; Davidson, HE).
1. Nomadic and Agricultural Periods
In these earliest cultural periods, both the nomadic and the agricultural, there was no distinct separation between the spheres of religion and ordinary life. The relation of the people to Yahweh was conceived by them in simple fashion as involving on their part the obligation of filial obedience and loyalty, and on Yahweh's part reciprocal parental care over them as His people. The family was the social unit and its head the person in whom centered also religious authority and leadership, The tribal head or patriarch in turn combined in himself the functions which later were differentiated into those of priest and prophet and king. Education was a matter of purely domestic interest and concern. The home was the only school and the parents the only teachers. But there was real instruction, all of which, moreover, was given in a spirit of devout religious earnestness and of reverence for the common religious ceremonies and beliefs, no matter whether the subject of instruction was the simple task of husbandry or of some useful art, or whether it was the sacred history and traditions of the tribe, or the actual performance of its religious rites. According to Josephus (Ant., IV, viii, 12) Moses himself had commanded, ?All boys shall learn the most important parts of the law since such knowledge is most valuable and the source of happiness?; and again he commanded (Apion, II, 25) to teach them the rudiments of learning (reading and writing) together with the laws and deeds of the ancestors, in order that they might not transgress or seem ignorant of the laws of their ancestors, but rather emulate their example. Certain it is that the earliest legislation, including the Decalogue, emphasized parental authority and their claim on the reverence of their children: ?Honor thy father and thy mother, that thy days may be long in the land which Yahweh thy God giveth thee? (Exo_20:12); ?And he that smiteth his father, or his mother, shall be surely put to death. And he that curseth his father or his mother, shall surely be put to death? (Exo_21:15, Exo_21:17); while every father was exhorted to explain to his son the origin and significance of the great Passover ceremony with its feast of unleavened bread: ?And thou shalt tell thy son in that day, saying, It is because of that which Yahweh did for me when I came forth out of Egypt? (Exo_13:8).
2. The Monarchical Period
The period of conquest and settlement developed leaders who not only led the allied tribes in battle, but served as judges between their people, and were active in the maintenance of the ancestral religion. In time, sufficient co?peration was obtained to make possible the organization of strong intertribal leagues and, finally, the kingship. ?This increasing political unification,? says Ames, ?was accompanied by a religious consciousness which became ultimately the most remarkable product of the national development? (Ames, PRE, 174 f). The establishment of the kingdom and the beginnings of city and commercial life were accompanied by more radical cultural changes, including the differentiation of religious from other social institutions, the organization of the priesthood, and the rise and development of prophecy. Elijah, the Tishbite, Amos, the herdsman from Tekoa, Isaiah, the son of Amoz, were all champions of a simple faith and ancient religious ideals as over against the worldly-wise diplomacy and sensuous idolatry of the surrounding nations. Under the monarchy also a new religious symbolism developed. Yahweh was thought of as a king in whose hands actually lay the supreme guidance of the state: ?Accordingly the organization of the state included provision for consulting His will and obtaining His direction in all weighty matters? (W. R. Smith, RS, 30). Under the teaching of the prophets the ideal of personal and civic righteousness was moved to the very forefront of Hebrew religious thought, while the prophetic ideal of the future was that of a time when ?the earth shall be full of the knowledge of Yahweh, as the waters cover the sea? (Isa_11:9), when all ?from the least of them unto the greatest of them? shall know him (Jer_31:34). Concerning the so-called ?schools of the prophets? which, in the days of Elijah, existed at Bethel, Jericho and Gilgal (2Ki_2:3, 2Ki_2:1; 2Ki_4:38 f), and probably in other places, it should be noted that these were associations or brotherhoods established for the purpose of mutual edification rather than education. The Bible does not use the word ?schools? to designate these fraternities. Nevertheless, we cannot conceive of the element of religious training as being entirely absent.
3. Deuteronomic Legislation
Shortly before the Babylonian captivity King Josiah gave official recognition and sanction to the teachings of the prophets, while the Deuteronomic legislation of the same period strongly emphasized the responsibility of parents for the religious and moral instruction and training of their children. Concerning the words of the law Israel is admonished: ?Thou shalt teach them diligently unto thy children, and shalt talk of them when thou sittest in thy house, and when thou walkest by the way, and when thou liest down, and when thou risest up? (Deu_6:7; Deu_11:19). For the benefit of children as well as adults the law was to be written ?upon the door-posts? and ?gates? (Deu_6:9; Deu_11:20), and ?very plainly? upon ?great stones? set up for this purpose upon the hilltops and beside the altars (Deu_27:1-8). From the Deuteronomic period forward, religious training to the Jew became the synonym of education, while the word Ṭōrāh, which originally denoted simply ?Law? (Exo_24:12; Lev_7:1; Lev_26:46), came to mean ?religious instruction or teaching,? in which sense it is used in Deu_4:44; Deu_5:1, ?This is the law which Moses set before the children of Israel:... Hear, O Israel, the statutes and the ordinances which I speak in your ears this day, that ye may learn them, and observe to do them?; and in Pro_6:23,
?For the commandment is a lamp; and the law is light;
And reproofs of instruction are the way of life.?
(Compare Psa_19:8; Pro_3:1; Pro_4:2.)
4. Reading and Writing
With the development and reorganization of the ritual, priests and Levites, as the guardians of the law, were the principal instructors of the people, while parents remained in charge of the training of the children. In families of the aristocracy the place of the parents was sometimes taken by tutors, as appears from the case of the infant Solomon, whose training stems to have been entrusted to the prophet Nathan (2Sa_12:25). There is no way of determining to what extent the common people were able to read and write. Our judgment that these rudiments of formal education in the modern sense were not restricted to the higher classes is based upon such passages as Isa_29:11, Isa_29:12, which distinguishes between the man who ?is learned? (literally, ?knoweth letters?) and the one who is ?not learned,? and Isa_10:19, referring to the ability of a child ?to write,? taken together with such facts as that the literary prophets Amos and Micah sprang from the ranks of the common people, and that ?the workman who excavated the tunnel from the Virgin's Spring to the Pool of Siloam carved in the rock the manner of their work? (Kennedy in HDB). It should be added that the later Jewish tradition reflected in the Talmud, Targum and Midrash, and which represents both public, elementary and college education as highly developed even in patriarchal times, is generally regarded as altogether untrustworthy.
III. Education in Later Israel
The national disaster that befell the Hebrew people in the downfall of Jerusalem and the Babylonian captivity was not without its compensating, purifying and stimulating influence upon the religious and educational development of the nation. Under the pressure of adverse external circumstances the only source of comfort for the exiled people was in the law and covenant of Yahweh, while the shattering of all hope of immediate national greatness turned the thought and attention of the religious leaders away from the present toward the future. Two types of Messianic expectation characterized the religious development of the exilic period. The first is the priestly, material hope of return and restoration reflected in the prophecies of Ezekiel. The exiled tribes are to return again to Jerusalem; the temple is to be restored, its ritual and worship purified and exalted, the priestly ordinance and service elaborated. The second is the spiritualized and idealized Messianic expectation of the Second Isaiah, based on teachings of the earlier prophets. For the greatest of Hebrew prophets Yahweh is the only God, and the God of all nations as well as of Israel. For him Israel is Yahweh's servant, His instrument for revealing Himself to other nations, who, when they witness the redemption of Yahweh's suffering Servant, will bow down to Yahweh and acknowledge His rule. ?Thus the trials of the nation lead to a comprehensive universalism within which the suffering Israel gains an elevated and ennobling explanation? (Ames, PRE, 185). In the prophetic vision of Ezekiel we must seek the inspiration for the later development of Jewish ritual, as well as the basis of those eschatological hopes and expectations which find their fuller expression in the apocalypse of Daniel and the kindred literature of the later centuries. The prophecies of the Isaiahs and the Messianic hope which these kindled in the hearts of the faithful prepared the way for the teachings of Jesus concerning a Divine spiritual kingdom, based upon the personal, ethical character of the individual and the mutual, spiritual fellowship of believers.
1. Educational Significance of the Prophets
The educational significance of the prophetic writings of this as of the preceding periods is that the prophets themselves were the real religious leaders and representative men (Kulturtr?ger) of the nation. In advance of their age they were the heralds of Divine truth; the watchmen on the mountain tops whose clear insight into the future detected the significant elements in the social and religious conditions and tendencies about them, and whose keen intellect and lofty faith grasped the eternal principles which are the basis of all individual and national integrity and worth. These truths and principles they impressed upon the consciousness of their own and succeeding generations, thereby giving to future teachers of their race the essence of their message, and preparing the way for the larger and fuller interpretation of religion and life contained in the teachings of Jesus. The immediate influence of their teaching is explained in part by the variety and effectiveness of their teaching method, their marvelous simplicity and directness of speech, their dramatic emphasis upon essentials and their intelligent appreciation of social conditions and problems about them.
2. The Book of the Law
The immediate bond of union, as well as the textbook and program of religious instruction, during the period of the captivity and subsequently, was the Book of the Law, which the exiles carried with them to Babylon. When in 458 bc a company of exiles returned to Palestine, they along with their poorer brethren who had not been carried away, restored the Jewish community at Jerusalem, and under the suzerainty of Persia, founded a new nationalism, based, even more than had been the earlier monarchy, upon the theocratic conception of Israel's relation to Yahweh. During this period it was that writings of poets, lawgivers, prophets and sages were brought together into one sacred collection of scrolls, known later as the Old Testament canon, of which the Ṭorah (the law) was educationally the most significant. The recognized teachers of this period included, in addition to the priests and Levites, the ?wise men,? or ?sages? and the ?scribes? or ṣōpherı̄m (literally, ?those learned in Scriptures?).
3. Wise Men or Sages
Whether or not the sages and scribes of the later post-exilic times are to be regarded as one and the same class, as an increasing number of scholars are inclined to believe, or thought of as distinct classes, the wise men clearly antedate, not only the ṣōpherı̄m but in all probability all forms of book learning as well. Suggestions of their existence and function are met with in earliest times both in Israel and among other nations of the East. As illustrations of their appearance in pre?xilic Old Testament history may be cited the references in 2 Sam 14:1-20; 1Ki_4:32; Isa_29:10. It is no lesser personage than King Solomon who, both by his contemporaries and later generations as well, was regarded as the greatest representative of this earlier group of teachers who uttered their wisdom in the form of clever, epigrammatic proverbs and shrewd sayings. The climax of Wisdom-teaching belongs, however, to the later post-exilic period. Of the wise men of this later day an excellent description is preserved for us in the Book of Ecclesiasticus (39:3, 4, 8, 10; compare 1:1-11):
?He seeks out the hidden meaning of proverbs,
And is conversant with the subtleties of parables,
He serves among great men,
And appears before him who rules;
He travels through the land of strange nations;
For he hath tried good things and evil among men.
He shows forth the instruction which he has been taught,
And glories in the law of the covenant of the Lord.
Nations shall declare his wisdom,
And the congregation shall tell out his praise.?
4. The Book of Proverbs
Of the pedagogic experience, wisdom and learning of these sages, the Book of Proverbs forms the Biblical repository. Aside from the Ṭorah it is thus the oldest handbook of education. The wise men conceive of life itself as a discipline. Parents are the natural instructors of their children:
?My son, hear the instruction of thy father,
And forsake not the law of thy mother.? - Pro_1:8.
(Compare Pro_4:1-4; Pro_6:20; Pro_13:1.) The substance of such parental teaching is to be the 'fear of Yahweh' which ?is the beginning of wisdom?; and fidelity in the performance of this parental obligation has the promise of success:
?Train up a child in the way he should go,
And even when he is old he will not depart from it.? - Pro_22:6.
In their training of children, parents are to observe sternness, not hesitating to apply the rod of correction, when needed (compare Pro_23:13, Pro_23:14), yet doing so with discretion, since wise reproof is better than ?a hundred stripes? (Pro_17:10). Following the home training there is provision for further instruction at the hands of professional teachers for all who would really obtain unto ?wisdom? and who can afford the time and expense of such special training. The teachers are none other than the wise men or sages whose words ?heard in quiet? (Ecc_9:17) are ?as goads, and as nails well fastened? (Ecc_12:11). Their precepts teach diligence Prov (Pro_6:6-11), chastity (Pro_7:5), charity (Pro_14:21), truthfulness (Pro_17:7) and temperance (Pro_21:17; Pro_23:20, Pro_23:21, Pro_23:29-35); for the aim of all Wisdom-teaching is none other than
?To give prudence to the simple,
To the young man knowledge and discretion:
That the wise man may hear, and increase in learning;
And that the man of understanding may attain unto sound counsels.? - Pro_1:4, Pro_1:5.
5. Scribes and Levites
The ṣōpherı̄m or ?men of book learning? were editors and interpreters as well as scribes or copyists of ancient and current writings. As a class they did not become prominent until the wise men, as such, stepped into the background, nor until the exigencies of the situation demanded more teachers and teaching than the ranks of priests and Levites, charged with increasing ritualistic duties, could supply. Ezra was both a priest and a ṣōphēr (Ezr_7:11; Neh_8:1 f), concerning whom we read that he ?set his heart to seek the law of Yahweh, and to do it, and to teach in Israel statutes and ordinances? (Ezr_7:10). Likewise the Levites often appear as teachers of the law, and we must think of the development of sopherism (scribism) as a distinct profession as proceeding very gradually. The same is true of the characteristic Jewish religious-educational institution, the synagogue, the origin and development of which fell within this same general period (compare SYNAGOGUE). The pupils of the ṣōpherı̄m were the Pharisees (perūshı̄m or ?separatists?) who during the Maccabean period came to be distinguished from the priestly party or Sadducees.
6. Greek and Roman Influences
The conquest of Persia by Alexander (332 bc) marks the rise of Greek influence in Palestine. Alexander himself visited Palestine and perhaps Jerusalem (Josephus, Ant, X, i, 8), befriended the Jews and granted to them the privilege of seir-government, and the maintenance of their own social and religious customs, both at home and in Alexandria, the new center of Greek learning, in the founding of which many Jews participated (see ALEXANDRIA). During the succeeding dynasty of the Ptolemies, Greek ideas and Greek culture penetrated to the very heart of Judaism at Jerusalem, and threatened the overthrow of Jewish social and religious institutions. The Maccabean revolt under Antiochus Epiphanes (174-164 bc) and the re-establishment of a purified temple ritual during the early part of the Maccabean period (161-63 bc) were the natural reaction against the attempt of the Seleucids forcibly to substitute the Greek gymnasium and theater for the Jewish synagogue and temple (Felten, NZ, I, 83 f; compare 1 Macc 1, 3, 9, 13 and 2 Macc 4-10). The end of the Maccabean period found Phariseeism and strict Jewish orthodoxy in the ascendancy with such Hellenic tendencies as had found permanent lodgment in Judaism reflected in the agnosticism of the aristocratic Sadducees. The establishment of Roman authority in Palestine (63 bc) introduced a new determining element into the environmental conditions under which Judaism was to attain its final distinguishing characteristics. The genius of the Romans was practical, legalistic and institutional. As organizers and administrators they were pre?minent. But their religion never inspired to any exalted view of life, and education to them meant always merely a preparation for life's practical duties. Hence, the influence of Roman authority upon Judaism was favorable to the development of a narrow individualistic Phariseeism, rather than to the fostering of Greek idealism and universalism. With the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans a little more than a century later (70 ad) and the cessation of the temple worship, the Sadducees as a class disappeared from Judaism, which has ever since been represented by the Pharisees devoted to the study of the law. Outside of Jerusalem and Palestine, meanwhile, the Jewish communities at Alexandria and elsewhere were much more hospitable to Greek culture and learning, at the same time exerting a reciprocal, modifying influence upon Greek thought. It was, however, through its influence upon early Christian theology and education that the Hellenistic philosophy of the Alexandrian school left its deeper impress upon the substance and method of later Christian education.
IV. Education in New Testament Times
Elementary schools: Jewish education in the time of Christ was of the orthodox traditional type and in the hands of scribes, Pharisees and learned rabbis. The home was still the chief institution for the dispensation of elementary instruction, although synagogues, with attached schools for the young were to be found in every important Jewish community. Public elementary schools, other than those connected with the synagogues were of slower growth and do not seem to have been common until, some time after Joshua ben Gamala, high priest from 63-65 ad, ordered that teachers be appointed in every province and city to instruct children having attained the age of 6-7 years. In the synagogue schools the ḥazzān, or attendant, not infrequently served as schoolmaster (compare SCHOOL; SCHOOLMASTER).
1. Subject Matter of Instruction
As in earlier times the Ṭorah, connoting now the sacred Old Testament writings as a whole, though with emphasis still upon the law, furnished the subject-matter of instruction. To this were added, in the secondary schools (colleges) of the rabbis, the illustrative and parabolical rabbinical interpretation of the law (the haggādhāh) and its application to daily life in the form of concise precept or rule of conduct (the halākhāh). Together the haggādhāh and halākhāh furnish the content of the Talmud (or Talmuds), as the voluminous collections of orthodox Jewish teachings of later centuries came to be known.
2. Method and Aims
As regards teaching method the scribes and rabbis of New Testament times did not improve much upon the practice of the ṣōpherı̄m and sages of earlier centuries. Memorization, the exact reproduction by the pupil of the master's teaching, rather than general knowledge or culture, was the main objective. Since the voice of prophecy had become silent and the canon of revealed truth was considered closed, the intellectual mastery and interpretation of this sacred revelation of the past was the only aim that education on its intellectual side could have. On its practical side it sought, as formerly, the inculcation of habits of strict ritualistic observance, obedience to the letter of the law as a condition of association and fellowship with the selected company of true Israelites to which scribes and Pharisees considered themselves to belong. The success with which the teachings of the scribes and rabbis were accompanied is an evidence of their devotion to their work, and more still of the psychological insight manifested by them in utilizing every subtle means and method for securing and holding the attention of their pupils, and making their memories the trained and obedient servants of an educational ideal. The defects in their work were largely the defects in that ideal. Their theory and philosophy of education were narrow. ?Their eyes were turned too much to the past rather than the present and future.? They failed to distinguish clearly the gold from the dross in their inherited teachings, or to adapt these to the vital urgent needs of the common people. In its struggle against foreign cults and foreign culture, Judaism had encased itself in a shell of stereotyped orthodoxy, the attempt to adapt which to new conditions and to a constantly changing social order resulted in an insincere and shallow casuistry of which the fantastic conglomerate mass of Talmudic wisdom of the 4th and 6th centuries is the lasting memorial.
3. Valuable Results of Jewish Education
Nevertheless, ?Jewish education, though defective both in matter and in method, and tending to fetter rather than to free the mind, achieved four valuable results: (1) it developed a taste for close, critical study; (2) it sharpened the wits, even to the point of perversity; (3) it encouraged a reverence for law and produced desirable social conduct; and (4) it formed a powerful bond of union among the Jewish people.? To these four points of excellence enumerated by Davidson (Historia Ecclesiastica, 80) must be added a fifth which, briefly stated, is this: (5) Jewish education by its consistent teaching of lofty monotheism, and its emphasis, sometimes incidental add sometimes outstanding, upon righteousness and holiness of life as a condition of participation in a future Messianic kingdom, prepared the way for the Christian view of God and the world, set forth in its original distinctness of outline and incomparable simplicity in the teachings of Jesus.
4. The Pre?minence of Jesus as a Teacher
Jesus was more than a teacher; but He was a teacher first. To His contemporaries he appeared as a Jewish rabbi of exceptional influence and popularity. He used the teaching methods of the rabbis; gathered about Him, as did they, a group of chosen disciples (learners) whom He trained and taught more explicitly with a view to perpetuating through them His own influence and work. His followers called Him Rabbi and Master, and the scribes and Pharisees conceded His popularity and power. He taught, as did the rabbis of His time, in the temple courts, in the synagogue, in private, and on the public highway as the exigencies of the case demanded. His textbook, so far as He used any, was the same as theirs; His form of speech (parable and connected discourse), manner of life and methods of instruction were theirs. Yet into His message and method He put a new note of authority that challenged attention and inspired confidence. Breaking with the traditions of the past He substituted for devotion to the letter of the law an interest in men, with boundless sympathy for their misfortune, abiding faith in their worth and high destiny and earnest solicitude for their regeneration and perfection. To say that Jesus was the world's greatest and foremost example as a teacher is to state a fact borne out by every inquiry, test and comparison that modern educational science can apply to the work and influence of its great creative geniuses of the past. Where His contemporaries and even His own followers saw only ?as in a glass, darkly,? He saw clearly; and His view of God and the world, of human life and human destiny, has come down through the ages as a Divine revelation vouchsafed the world in Him. Viewed from the intellectual side, it was the life philosophy of Jesus that made His teachings imperishable; esthetically it was the compassionate tenderness and solicitude of His message that drew the multitudes to Him; judged from the standpoint of will, it was the example of His life, its purpose, its purity, its helpfulness, that caused men to follow Him; and tested by its immediate and lasting social influence, it was the doctrine, the ideal and example of the human brotherliness and Divine sonship, that made Jesus the pattern of the great teachers of mankind in every age and generation. With a keen, penetrating insight into the ultimate meaning of life, He reached out, as it were, over the conflicting opinions of men and the mingling social and cultural currents of His time backward to the fundamental truths uttered by the ancient prophets of His race and forward to the ultimate goal of the race. Then with simple directness of speech He addressed Himself to the consciences and wills of men, setting before them the ideal of the higher life, and with infinite patience sought to lift them to the plane of fellowship with Himself in thought and action.
5. Educational Work of the Early Disciples
It remained for the disciples of Jesus to perpetuate His teaching ministry and to organize the new forces making for human betterment. In this work, which was distinctly religious-educational in character, some found a field of labor among their own Jewish kinsmen, and others, like Paul, among the needy Gentiles (Gal_1:16; Gal_2:7; 1Ti_2:7). As regards a division of labor in the apostolic church, we read of apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors and teachers ( 1Co_12:28; Eph_4:11). The apostles were the itinerant leaders and missionaries of the entire church. Their work was largely that of teaching, Paul insisting on calling himself a teacher as well as an apostle (2Ti_1:11; 1Co_4:17). The prophets were men with a special message like that of Agabus (Act_21:10, Act_21:11). The evangelists were itinerant preachers, as was Philip (Act_8:40), while the pastors, also called bishops, had permanent charge of individual churches. The professional teachers included both laymen and those ordained by the laying on of hands. Their work was regarded with highest honor in the church and community. In contrast with the itinerant church officers, apostles and evangelists, they, like the pastors, resided permanently in local communities. With this class the author of the Epistle of Jas identifies himself, and there can be little doubt that the epistle which he wrote reflects both the content and form of the instruction which these earliest Christian teachers gave to their pupils. Before the close of the 1st century the religious educational work of the church had been organized into a more systematic form, out of which there developed gradually the catechumenate of the early post-apostolic period (see CATECHIST). In the Didache, or Teachings of the Apostles, there has been reserved for us a textbook of religious instruction from this earlier period (Kent, GTJC). Necessarily, the entire missionary and evangelistic work of the apostolic church was educational in character, and throughout this earliest period of church history we must think of the work of apostles, evangelists and pastors, as well as that of professional teachers, as including a certain amount of systematic religious instruction. See further Pedagogy; SCHOOL; TEACHER; TUTOR.
Literature
Ames, Psychology of Religious Experience, chapter x; Box, article ?Education,? in Encyclopedia Biblica; Butler, The Meaning of Education; Davidson, History of Education; Dewey, article ?Education,? in Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education; Edersheim, ?The Upbringing of Jewish Children,? in SJSL, and Life and Times of Jesus, I, 225 f; Fairweather, Background of the Gospels; Felten, ?Schriftgelehrten, Synagogen u. Schulen,? in Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte, I; Ginsburg, article ?Education,? in Kitto's Biblical Cyclopedia; Hiegemoser u. Bock, Quellenbuch u. ?berblick d. Geschichte d. P?dagogik; Katzer, articles ?Jesus als Lehrer? and ?Judenchristenturn,? in Rein's Encyklop?disches Handbuch d. P?dagogik; Kennedy, article ?Education,? in HDB, I; Kohler and Gudemann, article ?Education? in Jewish Encyclopedia, V; Kent, Great Teachers of Judaism and Christianity and Makers and Teachers of Judaism; Laurie, Historical Survey of Pre-Christian Education; Lewit, Darstellung d. theoretischen u. praktischen P?dagogik im j?d. Altertume; Oehler, article ?P?dagogik d. Alten Testaments,? in Schmid's Encyclop?die d. Gesammten Erziehungs-u. Unterrichtswesen; Sch?rer, ?Schriftgelehrsamkeit, Schule u. Synagoge,? in Geschichte d. j?d. Volkes (ed 1907); W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites; Straussburger, Geschichte d. Unterrichts bei d. Israeliten; von Rohden, article ?Katechetik? in Rein's EHP.
International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
PRINTER 1915.
As to the educational attainments of the Hebrews before the conquest of Canaan, it is useless to speculate. On their settlement in Canaan, however, they were brought into contact with a civilization which for two thousand years or more had been under the influence of Babylonia and in a less degree of Egypt. The language of Babylonia, with its complicated system of wedge-writing, had for long been the medium of communication not only between the rulers of the petty states of Canaan and the great powers outside its borders, but even, as we now know from Sellins discoveries at Taanach, between these rulers themselves. This implies the existence of some provision for instruction in reading and writing the difficult Babylonian script. Although in this early period such accomplishments were probably confined to a limited number of high officials and professional scribes, the incident in Gideons experience, Jdg_8:14 (where we must render with RVm [Note: Revised Version margin.] wrote down), warns us against unduly restricting the number of those able to read and write in the somewhat later period of the Judges. The more stable political conditions under the monarchy, and in particular the development of the administration and the growth of commerce under Solomon, must undoubtedly have furthered the spread of education among all classes.
Of schools and schoolmasters, however, there is no evidence till after the Exile, for the expression schools of the prophets has no Scripture warrant. Only once, indeed, is the word school to be found even in NT (Act_19:9), and then only of the lecture-room of a Greek teacher in Ephesus. The explanation of this silence is found in the fact that the Hebrew child received his education in the home, with his parents as his only instructors. Although he grew up ignorant of much that every school-boy knows to-day, he must not on that account be set down as uneducated. He had been instructed, first of all, in the truths of his ancestral religion (see Deu_6:20-25 and elsewhere); and in the ritual of the recurring festivals there was provided for him object-lessons in history and religion (Exo_12:26 f., Exo_13:8; Exo_13:14). In the traditions of his family and racesome of which are still preserved in the older parts of OThe had a unique storehouse of the highest ideals of faith and conduct, and these after all are the things that matter.
Descending the stream of history, we reach an epoch-making event in the history of education, not less than of religion, among the Jews, in the assembly convened by Ezra and Nehemiah (Neh_8:1 ff.), at which the people pledged themselves to accept the book of the law of Moses as the norm of their life in all its relations. Henceforward the Jews were pre-eminently, in Mohammeds phrase, the people of the Book. But if the Jewish community was henceforth to regulate its whole life, not according to the living word of priest and prophet, but according to the requirements of a written law, it was indispensable that provision should be made for the instruction of all classes in this law. To this practical necessity is due the origin of the synagogue (wh. see), which, from the Jewish point of view, was essentially a meeting-place for religious instruction, and, indeed, is expressly so named by Philo. In NT also the preacher or expounder in the synagogue is invariably said to teach (Mat_4:23, Mar_1:21, and passim), and the education of youth continues to the last to be associated with the synagogue (see below). The situation created by this new zeal for the Law has been admirably described by Wellhausen: The Bible became the spelling-book, the community a school. Piety and education were inseparable; whoever could not read was no true Jew. We may say that in this way were created the beginnings of popular education.
This new educational movement was under the guidance of a body of students and teachers of the Law known as the Sôpherim (lit. book-men) or scribes, of whom Ezra is the typical example (Ezr_7:6). Alongside these, if not identical with them, as many hold, we find an influential class of religious and moral teachers, known as the Sages or the Wise, whose activity culminates in the century preceding the fall of the Persian empire (b.c. 430330). The arguments for the identity in all important respects of the early scribes and the sages are given by the present writer in Hastings DB [Note: Dictionary of the Bible.] i. 648; but even if the two classes were originally distinct, there can be no doubt that by the time of Jesus hen Sira, the author of Ecclesiasticus (cir. b.c. 180170), himself a scribe and the last of the sages, they had become merged in one.
To appreciate the religious and ethical teaching of the sages, we have only to open the Book of Proverbs. Here life is pictured as a discipline, the Hebrew word for which is found thirty times in this book. The whole of life, it has been said, is here considered from the view-point of a pædagogic institution. God educates men, and men educate each other (O. Holtzmann).
With the coming of the Greeks a new educational force in the shape of Hellenistic culture entered Palestinea force which made itself felt in many directions in the pre-Maccabean age. From a reference in Josephus (Ant. XII. iv. 6) it may be inferred that schools on the Greek model had been established in Jerusalem itself before b.c. 220. It was somewhere in this period, too, that the preacher could say: Of making many books there is no end; and much study is a weariness of the flesh (Ecc_12:12)reflexions which necessarily presuppose a wide-spread interest in intellectual pursuits. The edict of Antiochus Epiphanes at a later date (1Ma_1:57) equally implies a considerable circulation of the Torah among the people, with the ability to profit by its study.
Passing now, as this brief sketch requires, to the period of Jewish history that lies between the triumph of the Maccabees and the end of the Jewish State in a.d. 70, we find a traditionthere is no valid reason for rejecting it as untrustworthywhich illustrates the extent to which elementary education, at least, was fostered under the later Maccabean princes. A famous scribe of the period (cir. b.c. 75), Simon ben-Shetach, brother of Queen Alexandra, is said to have got a law passed ordaining that the children shall attend the elementary school. This we understand on various grounds to mean, not that these schools were first instituted, but that attendance at them was henceforth to be compulsory. The elementary school, termed the house of the Book (i.e. Scripture), in opposition to the house of study or college of the scribes (see below), was always closely associated with the synagogue. In the smaller places, indeed, the same building served for both.
The elementary teachers, as we may call them, formed the lowest rank in the powerful guild of the scribes. They are the doctors (lit. teachers) of the law, who, in our Lords day, were to be found in every village of Galilee and Judæa (Luk_5:17 RV [Note: Revised Version.] ), and who figure so frequently in the Gospels. Attendance at the elementary school began at the age of six. Already the boy had learned to repeat the Shema (Hear, O Israel, etc., Deu_6:4), selected proverbs and verses from the Psalms. He now began to learn to read. His only textbooks were the rolls of the sacred Scriptures, especially the roll of the Law, the opening chapters of Leviticus being usually the first to be taken in hand. After the letters were mastered, the teacher copied a verse which the child had already learned by heart, and taught him to identify the individual words. The chief feature of the teaching was learning by rote, and that audibly, for the Jewish teachers were thorough believers in the Latin maxim, repetitio mater studiorum. The pupils sat on the floor at the teachers feet, as did Saul at the feet of Gamaliel (Act_22:3).
The subjects taught were the three R [Note: Redactor.] sreading, writing, and arithmetic, the last in a very elementary form. The childs first attempts at writing were probably done, as in the Greek schools of the period, on sherds of pottery; from these he would be promoted to a wax tablet (Luk_1:63 RV [Note: Revised Version.] ), on which he wrote with a pointed style or metal instrument, very much as if one wrote on thickly buttered bread with a small stiletto. Only after considerable progress had been made would he finally reach the dignity of papyrus.
For the mass of young Jews of the male sex, for whom alone public provision was made, the girls being still restricted to the tuition of the home, the teaching of the primary school sufficed. Those, however, who wished to be themselves teachers, or otherwise to devote themselves to the professional study of the Law, passed on to the higher schools or colleges above mentioned. At the beginning of our era the two most important of these colleges were taught by the famous doctors of the law, Hillel and Shammai. It was a grandson of the former, Gamaliel I., who, thirty years later, numbered Saul of Tarsus among his students (Act_22:3). In the Beth hammidrash (house of study) the exclusive subjects of study were the interpretation of the OT, and the art of applying the regulations of the Torah, by means of certain exegetical canons, to the minutest details of the life of the time.
A. R. S. Kennedy.
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible
Edited by James Hastings, D.D. Published in 1909
Chiefly in the law of God (Exo_12:26; Exo_13:8; Exo_13:14; Deu_4:5; Deu_4:9-10; Deu_6:2; Deu_6:7; Deu_6:20; Deu_11:19; Deu_11:21; Act_22:3; 2Ti_3:15). The Book of Proverbs inculcates on parents, as to their children, the duty of disciplinary instruction and training in the word of God. This was the ONE book of national education in the reformations undertaken by Jehoshaphat and Josiah (2Ch_17:7-9; 2Ch_34:30). The priests' and Levites' duty especially was to teach the people (2Ch_15:3; Lev_10:11; Mal_2:7; Neh_8:2; Neh_8:8-9; Neh_8:13; Jer_18:18).
The Mishna says that parents ought to teach their children some trade, and he who did not virtually taught his child to steal. The prophets, or special public authoritative teachers, were trained in schools or colleges (Amo_7:14). "Writers," or musterers general, belonging to Zebulun, who enrolled recruits and wrote the names of those who went to war, are mentioned (Jdg_5:14). "Scribes of the host" (Jer_52:25) appear in the Assyrian bas-reliefs, writing down the various persons or objects brought to them, so that there is less exaggeration than in the Egyptian representations of battle. Seraiah was David's scribe or secretary, and Jehoshaphat, son of Ahilud, was "recorder" or writer of chronicles, historiographer (2Sa_8:16-17); Shebun was Hezekiah's scribe (2Ki_18:37).
The learned, according to the rabbis, were called "sons of the noble," and took precedence at table. Boys at five years of age, says the Mishna, were to begin reading Scripture, at ten they were to begin reading the Mishna, and at thirteen years of age they were subject to the whole law (Luk_2:46); at fifteen they entered study of the Gemara. The prophetic schools included females such as Huldah (2Ki_22:14). The position and duties of females among the Jews were much higher than among other Orientals (Pro_31:10-31; Luk_8:2-3; Luk_10:38, etc.; Act_13:50; 2Ti_1:5).
Fausset's Bible Dictionary
By Andrew Robert Fausset, co-Author of Jamieson, Fausset and Brown's 1888.
Education. There is little trace among the Hebrews in earlier times of education in any other subjects than the law. The wisdom, therefore, and instruction, of which so much is said in the book of Proverbs, are to be understood chiefly of moral and religious discipline, imparted, according to the direction of the law, by the teaching and under the example of parents.
(But Solomon himself wrote treatises on several scientific subjects, which must have been studied in those days). In later times, the prophecies and comments on them, as well as on the earlier Scriptures, together with other subjects, were studied. Parents were required to teach their children some trade.
(Girls also went to schools, and women generally among the Jews were treated with greater equality to men than in any other ancient nation). Previous to the captivity, the chief depositaries of learning were the schools or colleges, from which in most cases proceeded that succession of public teachers who at various times endeavored to reform the moral and religious conduct of both rulers and people. Besides the prophetical schools, instruction was given by the priests in the Temple and elsewhere. See Schools.
Smith's Bible Dictionary
By Dr. William Smith.Published in 1863
In early times there were no schools such as we know them today, and most children were educated at home. It was the responsibility of parents to teach their children the history and social customs of their nation, to instruct them in right living and to prepare them for adult life. This preparation involved teaching and training in reading, writing, crafts, trades and household work (Exo_13:8; Exo_13:14; Deu_4:9-10; Pro_1:8; Pro_4:1-9; Pro_31:1). In the case of Israelites, parents had a particular responsibility to teach their children the religion given them by God (Deu_6:6-9). Christian parents have a similar responsibility (Eph_6:4; 2Ti_1:5; 2Ti_3:15; see FAMILY).
People of higher social status often received a more formal education through private instructors who were appointed as the childrens guardians (2Ki_10:1; Act_7:22; Gal_3:24-25). Institutions known as wisdom schools were later established for the teaching and training of upper class people in philosophical thought (Ecc_12:9; Ecc_12:11; Jer_18:18; see WISDOM LITERATURE). Prophets also had schools for the training of their disciples (2Ki_2:3; 2Ki_4:38; Isa_8:16; see PROPHET).
For ordinary Israelites, the highest academic instruction they received was the teaching of the law of Moses. Originally the priests were the teachers, but by New Testament times the scribes had taken over most of the teaching activity (Deu_33:10; Ezr_7:6; Ezr_7:10; Neh_8:1-4; Neh_8:8; Mat_23:2-3; see SCRIBES). The power of the scribes had developed along with the establishment of places known as synagogues, which became centres of instruction for Jewish people in general (Mat_4:23; Luk_4:16-21; see SYNAGOGUE).
Jewish men could, if they wished, receive a more thorough education in the Jewish law by becoming students of learned Jewish teachers (Joh_3:10; Act_5:34; see RABBI). They usually sat at the feet of their teachers (Act_22:3), and learnt by memorizing facts and having question-and-answer sessions with their teachers (Deu_31:19; Luk_2:46). These teachers often taught in the temple (Mat_26:55; Luk_2:46; cf. Luk_19:47). (Concerning teachers in the church see TEACHER.)
In addition to education in this traditional religious setting, education in a Greek philosophical setting was also common in New Testament times. This created difficulties for Christians, because of the conflicts between values taught in this kind of education and values taught in Christian homes and churches (1Co_1:20-25; Col_2:8).
Such conflicts will always exist. Christians may consider that when a government accepts responsibility for the education of its citizens, it is fulfilling part of its God-given task. It is helping provide for societys well-being (Rom_13:4). But this does not relieve Christian parents and church leaders of their responsibilities concerning the proper instruction, development and growth of those within their care (Eph_4:13-15; Eph_6:4; 2Ti_3:14-17; Heb_5:14; Heb_13:17; see also ETHICS).
Bridgeway Bible Dictionary by Don Fleming
PRINTER 1990.
ed-ū̇-kā?shun:
I. Education Defined
II. Education in Early Israel
1. Nomadic and Agricultural Periods
2. The Monarchical Period
3. Deuteronomic Legislation
4. Reading and Writing
III. Education in Later Israel
1. Educational Significance of the Prophets
2. The Book of the Law
3. Wise Men or Sages
4. The Book of Proverbs
5. Scribes and Levites
6. Greek and Roman Influences
IV. Education in New Testament Times
1. Subject Matter of Instruction
2. Method and Aims
3. Valuable Results of Jewish Education
4. The Pre?minence of Jesus as a Teacher
5. Educational Work of the Early Disciples
Literature
I. Education Defined
By education we understand the sum total of those processes whereby society transmits from one generation to the next its accumulated social, intellectual and religious experience and heritage. In part these processes are informal and incidental, arising from participation in certain forms of social life and activity which exist on their own account and not for the sake of their educative influence upon the rising generation. The more formal educative processes are designed (1) to give the immature members of society a mastery over the symbols and technique of civilization, including language (reading and writing), the arts, the sciences, and religion, and (2) to enlarge the fund of individual and community knowledge beyond the measure furnished by the direct activities of the immediate environment (compare Dewey, article on ?Education? in Monroe's CE; compare Butler, ME).
Religious education among ancient and modern peoples alike reveals clearly this twofold aspect of all education. On its informal side it consists in the transmission of religious ideas and experience by means of the reciprocal processes of imitation and example; each generation, by actually participating in the religious activities and ceremonies of the social group, imbibing as it were the spirit and ideals of the preceding generation as these are modified by the particular economic and industrial conditions under which the entire process takes place. Formal religious education begins with the conscious and systematic effort on the part of the mature members of a social group (tribe, nation, or religious fellowship) to initiate the immature members by means of solemn rites and ceremonies, or patient training, or both, into the mysteries and high privileges of their own religious fellowship and experience. As regards both the content and form of this instruction, these will in every case be determined by the type and stage of civilization reflected in the life, occupations, habits and customs of the people. Among primitive races educational method is simpler and the content of formal instruction less differentiated than on higher culture levels (Ames, PRE). All education is at first religious in the sense that religious motives and ideas predominate in the educational efforts of all primitive peoples. The degree to which religion continues pre?minent in the educational system of a progressive nation depends upon the vitality of its religion and upon the measure of efficiency and success with which from the first that religion is instilled into the very bone and sinew of each succeeding generation. Here lies the explanation of the religious-educational character of Hebrew national life, and here, too, the secret of Israel's incomparable influence upon the religious and educational development of the world. The religion of Israel was a vital religion and it was a teaching religion (Kent, GTJC).
II. Education in Early Israel
In their social and national development the Hebrews passed through several clearly marked cultural stages which it is important to note in connection with their educational history. At the earliest point at which the Old Testament gives us any knowledge of them, they, like their ancestors, were nomads and shepherds. Their chief interest centered in the flocks and herds from which they gained a livelihood, and in the simple, useful arts that seem gradually to have become hereditary in certain families. With the settlement of the Hebrew tribes in Palestine and their closer contact with Canaanitish culture, a more established agricultural life with resulting changes in social and religious institutions gradually superseded the nomadic stage of culture. A permanent dwelling-place made possible, as the continual warfare of gradual conquest made necessary, a closer federation of the tribes, which ultimately resulted in the establishment of the monarchy under David (W. R. Smith, RS; Davidson, HE).
1. Nomadic and Agricultural Periods
In these earliest cultural periods, both the nomadic and the agricultural, there was no distinct separation between the spheres of religion and ordinary life. The relation of the people to Yahweh was conceived by them in simple fashion as involving on their part the obligation of filial obedience and loyalty, and on Yahweh's part reciprocal parental care over them as His people. The family was the social unit and its head the person in whom centered also religious authority and leadership, The tribal head or patriarch in turn combined in himself the functions which later were differentiated into those of priest and prophet and king. Education was a matter of purely domestic interest and concern. The home was the only school and the parents the only teachers. But there was real instruction, all of which, moreover, was given in a spirit of devout religious earnestness and of reverence for the common religious ceremonies and beliefs, no matter whether the subject of instruction was the simple task of husbandry or of some useful art, or whether it was the sacred history and traditions of the tribe, or the actual performance of its religious rites. According to Josephus (Ant., IV, viii, 12) Moses himself had commanded, ?All boys shall learn the most important parts of the law since such knowledge is most valuable and the source of happiness?; and again he commanded (Apion, II, 25) to teach them the rudiments of learning (reading and writing) together with the laws and deeds of the ancestors, in order that they might not transgress or seem ignorant of the laws of their ancestors, but rather emulate their example. Certain it is that the earliest legislation, including the Decalogue, emphasized parental authority and their claim on the reverence of their children: ?Honor thy father and thy mother, that thy days may be long in the land which Yahweh thy God giveth thee? (Exo_20:12); ?And he that smiteth his father, or his mother, shall be surely put to death. And he that curseth his father or his mother, shall surely be put to death? (Exo_21:15, Exo_21:17); while every father was exhorted to explain to his son the origin and significance of the great Passover ceremony with its feast of unleavened bread: ?And thou shalt tell thy son in that day, saying, It is because of that which Yahweh did for me when I came forth out of Egypt? (Exo_13:8).
2. The Monarchical Period
The period of conquest and settlement developed leaders who not only led the allied tribes in battle, but served as judges between their people, and were active in the maintenance of the ancestral religion. In time, sufficient co?peration was obtained to make possible the organization of strong intertribal leagues and, finally, the kingship. ?This increasing political unification,? says Ames, ?was accompanied by a religious consciousness which became ultimately the most remarkable product of the national development? (Ames, PRE, 174 f). The establishment of the kingdom and the beginnings of city and commercial life were accompanied by more radical cultural changes, including the differentiation of religious from other social institutions, the organization of the priesthood, and the rise and development of prophecy. Elijah, the Tishbite, Amos, the herdsman from Tekoa, Isaiah, the son of Amoz, were all champions of a simple faith and ancient religious ideals as over against the worldly-wise diplomacy and sensuous idolatry of the surrounding nations. Under the monarchy also a new religious symbolism developed. Yahweh was thought of as a king in whose hands actually lay the supreme guidance of the state: ?Accordingly the organization of the state included provision for consulting His will and obtaining His direction in all weighty matters? (W. R. Smith, RS, 30). Under the teaching of the prophets the ideal of personal and civic righteousness was moved to the very forefront of Hebrew religious thought, while the prophetic ideal of the future was that of a time when ?the earth shall be full of the knowledge of Yahweh, as the waters cover the sea? (Isa_11:9), when all ?from the least of them unto the greatest of them? shall know him (Jer_31:34). Concerning the so-called ?schools of the prophets? which, in the days of Elijah, existed at Bethel, Jericho and Gilgal (2Ki_2:3, 2Ki_2:1; 2Ki_4:38 f), and probably in other places, it should be noted that these were associations or brotherhoods established for the purpose of mutual edification rather than education. The Bible does not use the word ?schools? to designate these fraternities. Nevertheless, we cannot conceive of the element of religious training as being entirely absent.
3. Deuteronomic Legislation
Shortly before the Babylonian captivity King Josiah gave official recognition and sanction to the teachings of the prophets, while the Deuteronomic legislation of the same period strongly emphasized the responsibility of parents for the religious and moral instruction and training of their children. Concerning the words of the law Israel is admonished: ?Thou shalt teach them diligently unto thy children, and shalt talk of them when thou sittest in thy house, and when thou walkest by the way, and when thou liest down, and when thou risest up? (Deu_6:7; Deu_11:19). For the benefit of children as well as adults the law was to be written ?upon the door-posts? and ?gates? (Deu_6:9; Deu_11:20), and ?very plainly? upon ?great stones? set up for this purpose upon the hilltops and beside the altars (Deu_27:1-8). From the Deuteronomic period forward, religious training to the Jew became the synonym of education, while the word Ṭōrāh, which originally denoted simply ?Law? (Exo_24:12; Lev_7:1; Lev_26:46), came to mean ?religious instruction or teaching,? in which sense it is used in Deu_4:44; Deu_5:1, ?This is the law which Moses set before the children of Israel:... Hear, O Israel, the statutes and the ordinances which I speak in your ears this day, that ye may learn them, and observe to do them?; and in Pro_6:23,
?For the commandment is a lamp; and the law is light;
And reproofs of instruction are the way of life.?
(Compare Psa_19:8; Pro_3:1; Pro_4:2.)
4. Reading and Writing
With the development and reorganization of the ritual, priests and Levites, as the guardians of the law, were the principal instructors of the people, while parents remained in charge of the training of the children. In families of the aristocracy the place of the parents was sometimes taken by tutors, as appears from the case of the infant Solomon, whose training stems to have been entrusted to the prophet Nathan (2Sa_12:25). There is no way of determining to what extent the common people were able to read and write. Our judgment that these rudiments of formal education in the modern sense were not restricted to the higher classes is based upon such passages as Isa_29:11, Isa_29:12, which distinguishes between the man who ?is learned? (literally, ?knoweth letters?) and the one who is ?not learned,? and Isa_10:19, referring to the ability of a child ?to write,? taken together with such facts as that the literary prophets Amos and Micah sprang from the ranks of the common people, and that ?the workman who excavated the tunnel from the Virgin's Spring to the Pool of Siloam carved in the rock the manner of their work? (Kennedy in HDB). It should be added that the later Jewish tradition reflected in the Talmud, Targum and Midrash, and which represents both public, elementary and college education as highly developed even in patriarchal times, is generally regarded as altogether untrustworthy.
III. Education in Later Israel
The national disaster that befell the Hebrew people in the downfall of Jerusalem and the Babylonian captivity was not without its compensating, purifying and stimulating influence upon the religious and educational development of the nation. Under the pressure of adverse external circumstances the only source of comfort for the exiled people was in the law and covenant of Yahweh, while the shattering of all hope of immediate national greatness turned the thought and attention of the religious leaders away from the present toward the future. Two types of Messianic expectation characterized the religious development of the exilic period. The first is the priestly, material hope of return and restoration reflected in the prophecies of Ezekiel. The exiled tribes are to return again to Jerusalem; the temple is to be restored, its ritual and worship purified and exalted, the priestly ordinance and service elaborated. The second is the spiritualized and idealized Messianic expectation of the Second Isaiah, based on teachings of the earlier prophets. For the greatest of Hebrew prophets Yahweh is the only God, and the God of all nations as well as of Israel. For him Israel is Yahweh's servant, His instrument for revealing Himself to other nations, who, when they witness the redemption of Yahweh's suffering Servant, will bow down to Yahweh and acknowledge His rule. ?Thus the trials of the nation lead to a comprehensive universalism within which the suffering Israel gains an elevated and ennobling explanation? (Ames, PRE, 185). In the prophetic vision of Ezekiel we must seek the inspiration for the later development of Jewish ritual, as well as the basis of those eschatological hopes and expectations which find their fuller expression in the apocalypse of Daniel and the kindred literature of the later centuries. The prophecies of the Isaiahs and the Messianic hope which these kindled in the hearts of the faithful prepared the way for the teachings of Jesus concerning a Divine spiritual kingdom, based upon the personal, ethical character of the individual and the mutual, spiritual fellowship of believers.
1. Educational Significance of the Prophets
The educational significance of the prophetic writings of this as of the preceding periods is that the prophets themselves were the real religious leaders and representative men (Kulturtr?ger) of the nation. In advance of their age they were the heralds of Divine truth; the watchmen on the mountain tops whose clear insight into the future detected the significant elements in the social and religious conditions and tendencies about them, and whose keen intellect and lofty faith grasped the eternal principles which are the basis of all individual and national integrity and worth. These truths and principles they impressed upon the consciousness of their own and succeeding generations, thereby giving to future teachers of their race the essence of their message, and preparing the way for the larger and fuller interpretation of religion and life contained in the teachings of Jesus. The immediate influence of their teaching is explained in part by the variety and effectiveness of their teaching method, their marvelous simplicity and directness of speech, their dramatic emphasis upon essentials and their intelligent appreciation of social conditions and problems about them.
2. The Book of the Law
The immediate bond of union, as well as the textbook and program of religious instruction, during the period of the captivity and subsequently, was the Book of the Law, which the exiles carried with them to Babylon. When in 458 bc a company of exiles returned to Palestine, they along with their poorer brethren who had not been carried away, restored the Jewish community at Jerusalem, and under the suzerainty of Persia, founded a new nationalism, based, even more than had been the earlier monarchy, upon the theocratic conception of Israel's relation to Yahweh. During this period it was that writings of poets, lawgivers, prophets and sages were brought together into one sacred collection of scrolls, known later as the Old Testament canon, of which the Ṭorah (the law) was educationally the most significant. The recognized teachers of this period included, in addition to the priests and Levites, the ?wise men,? or ?sages? and the ?scribes? or ṣōpherı̄m (literally, ?those learned in Scriptures?).
3. Wise Men or Sages
Whether or not the sages and scribes of the later post-exilic times are to be regarded as one and the same class, as an increasing number of scholars are inclined to believe, or thought of as distinct classes, the wise men clearly antedate, not only the ṣōpherı̄m but in all probability all forms of book learning as well. Suggestions of their existence and function are met with in earliest times both in Israel and among other nations of the East. As illustrations of their appearance in pre?xilic Old Testament history may be cited the references in 2 Sam 14:1-20; 1Ki_4:32; Isa_29:10. It is no lesser personage than King Solomon who, both by his contemporaries and later generations as well, was regarded as the greatest representative of this earlier group of teachers who uttered their wisdom in the form of clever, epigrammatic proverbs and shrewd sayings. The climax of Wisdom-teaching belongs, however, to the later post-exilic period. Of the wise men of this later day an excellent description is preserved for us in the Book of Ecclesiasticus (39:3, 4, 8, 10; compare 1:1-11):
?He seeks out the hidden meaning of proverbs,
And is conversant with the subtleties of parables,
He serves among great men,
And appears before him who rules;
He travels through the land of strange nations;
For he hath tried good things and evil among men.
He shows forth the instruction which he has been taught,
And glories in the law of the covenant of the Lord.
Nations shall declare his wisdom,
And the congregation shall tell out his praise.?
4. The Book of Proverbs
Of the pedagogic experience, wisdom and learning of these sages, the Book of Proverbs forms the Biblical repository. Aside from the Ṭorah it is thus the oldest handbook of education. The wise men conceive of life itself as a discipline. Parents are the natural instructors of their children:
?My son, hear the instruction of thy father,
And forsake not the law of thy mother.? - Pro_1:8.
(Compare Pro_4:1-4; Pro_6:20; Pro_13:1.) The substance of such parental teaching is to be the 'fear of Yahweh' which ?is the beginning of wisdom?; and fidelity in the performance of this parental obligation has the promise of success:
?Train up a child in the way he should go,
And even when he is old he will not depart from it.? - Pro_22:6.
In their training of children, parents are to observe sternness, not hesitating to apply the rod of correction, when needed (compare Pro_23:13, Pro_23:14), yet doing so with discretion, since wise reproof is better than ?a hundred stripes? (Pro_17:10). Following the home training there is provision for further instruction at the hands of professional teachers for all who would really obtain unto ?wisdom? and who can afford the time and expense of such special training. The teachers are none other than the wise men or sages whose words ?heard in quiet? (Ecc_9:17) are ?as goads, and as nails well fastened? (Ecc_12:11). Their precepts teach diligence Prov (Pro_6:6-11), chastity (Pro_7:5), charity (Pro_14:21), truthfulness (Pro_17:7) and temperance (Pro_21:17; Pro_23:20, Pro_23:21, Pro_23:29-35); for the aim of all Wisdom-teaching is none other than
?To give prudence to the simple,
To the young man knowledge and discretion:
That the wise man may hear, and increase in learning;
And that the man of understanding may attain unto sound counsels.? - Pro_1:4, Pro_1:5.
5. Scribes and Levites
The ṣōpherı̄m or ?men of book learning? were editors and interpreters as well as scribes or copyists of ancient and current writings. As a class they did not become prominent until the wise men, as such, stepped into the background, nor until the exigencies of the situation demanded more teachers and teaching than the ranks of priests and Levites, charged with increasing ritualistic duties, could supply. Ezra was both a priest and a ṣōphēr (Ezr_7:11; Neh_8:1 f), concerning whom we read that he ?set his heart to seek the law of Yahweh, and to do it, and to teach in Israel statutes and ordinances? (Ezr_7:10). Likewise the Levites often appear as teachers of the law, and we must think of the development of sopherism (scribism) as a distinct profession as proceeding very gradually. The same is true of the characteristic Jewish religious-educational institution, the synagogue, the origin and development of which fell within this same general period (compare SYNAGOGUE). The pupils of the ṣōpherı̄m were the Pharisees (perūshı̄m or ?separatists?) who during the Maccabean period came to be distinguished from the priestly party or Sadducees.
6. Greek and Roman Influences
The conquest of Persia by Alexander (332 bc) marks the rise of Greek influence in Palestine. Alexander himself visited Palestine and perhaps Jerusalem (Josephus, Ant, X, i, 8), befriended the Jews and granted to them the privilege of seir-government, and the maintenance of their own social and religious customs, both at home and in Alexandria, the new center of Greek learning, in the founding of which many Jews participated (see ALEXANDRIA). During the succeeding dynasty of the Ptolemies, Greek ideas and Greek culture penetrated to the very heart of Judaism at Jerusalem, and threatened the overthrow of Jewish social and religious institutions. The Maccabean revolt under Antiochus Epiphanes (174-164 bc) and the re-establishment of a purified temple ritual during the early part of the Maccabean period (161-63 bc) were the natural reaction against the attempt of the Seleucids forcibly to substitute the Greek gymnasium and theater for the Jewish synagogue and temple (Felten, NZ, I, 83 f; compare 1 Macc 1, 3, 9, 13 and 2 Macc 4-10). The end of the Maccabean period found Phariseeism and strict Jewish orthodoxy in the ascendancy with such Hellenic tendencies as had found permanent lodgment in Judaism reflected in the agnosticism of the aristocratic Sadducees. The establishment of Roman authority in Palestine (63 bc) introduced a new determining element into the environmental conditions under which Judaism was to attain its final distinguishing characteristics. The genius of the Romans was practical, legalistic and institutional. As organizers and administrators they were pre?minent. But their religion never inspired to any exalted view of life, and education to them meant always merely a preparation for life's practical duties. Hence, the influence of Roman authority upon Judaism was favorable to the development of a narrow individualistic Phariseeism, rather than to the fostering of Greek idealism and universalism. With the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans a little more than a century later (70 ad) and the cessation of the temple worship, the Sadducees as a class disappeared from Judaism, which has ever since been represented by the Pharisees devoted to the study of the law. Outside of Jerusalem and Palestine, meanwhile, the Jewish communities at Alexandria and elsewhere were much more hospitable to Greek culture and learning, at the same time exerting a reciprocal, modifying influence upon Greek thought. It was, however, through its influence upon early Christian theology and education that the Hellenistic philosophy of the Alexandrian school left its deeper impress upon the substance and method of later Christian education.
IV. Education in New Testament Times
Elementary schools: Jewish education in the time of Christ was of the orthodox traditional type and in the hands of scribes, Pharisees and learned rabbis. The home was still the chief institution for the dispensation of elementary instruction, although synagogues, with attached schools for the young were to be found in every important Jewish community. Public elementary schools, other than those connected with the synagogues were of slower growth and do not seem to have been common until, some time after Joshua ben Gamala, high priest from 63-65 ad, ordered that teachers be appointed in every province and city to instruct children having attained the age of 6-7 years. In the synagogue schools the ḥazzān, or attendant, not infrequently served as schoolmaster (compare SCHOOL; SCHOOLMASTER).
1. Subject Matter of Instruction
As in earlier times the Ṭorah, connoting now the sacred Old Testament writings as a whole, though with emphasis still upon the law, furnished the subject-matter of instruction. To this were added, in the secondary schools (colleges) of the rabbis, the illustrative and parabolical rabbinical interpretation of the law (the haggādhāh) and its application to daily life in the form of concise precept or rule of conduct (the halākhāh). Together the haggādhāh and halākhāh furnish the content of the Talmud (or Talmuds), as the voluminous collections of orthodox Jewish teachings of later centuries came to be known.
2. Method and Aims
As regards teaching method the scribes and rabbis of New Testament times did not improve much upon the practice of the ṣōpherı̄m and sages of earlier centuries. Memorization, the exact reproduction by the pupil of the master's teaching, rather than general knowledge or culture, was the main objective. Since the voice of prophecy had become silent and the canon of revealed truth was considered closed, the intellectual mastery and interpretation of this sacred revelation of the past was the only aim that education on its intellectual side could have. On its practical side it sought, as formerly, the inculcation of habits of strict ritualistic observance, obedience to the letter of the law as a condition of association and fellowship with the selected company of true Israelites to which scribes and Pharisees considered themselves to belong. The success with which the teachings of the scribes and rabbis were accompanied is an evidence of their devotion to their work, and more still of the psychological insight manifested by them in utilizing every subtle means and method for securing and holding the attention of their pupils, and making their memories the trained and obedient servants of an educational ideal. The defects in their work were largely the defects in that ideal. Their theory and philosophy of education were narrow. ?Their eyes were turned too much to the past rather than the present and future.? They failed to distinguish clearly the gold from the dross in their inherited teachings, or to adapt these to the vital urgent needs of the common people. In its struggle against foreign cults and foreign culture, Judaism had encased itself in a shell of stereotyped orthodoxy, the attempt to adapt which to new conditions and to a constantly changing social order resulted in an insincere and shallow casuistry of which the fantastic conglomerate mass of Talmudic wisdom of the 4th and 6th centuries is the lasting memorial.
3. Valuable Results of Jewish Education
Nevertheless, ?Jewish education, though defective both in matter and in method, and tending to fetter rather than to free the mind, achieved four valuable results: (1) it developed a taste for close, critical study; (2) it sharpened the wits, even to the point of perversity; (3) it encouraged a reverence for law and produced desirable social conduct; and (4) it formed a powerful bond of union among the Jewish people.? To these four points of excellence enumerated by Davidson (Historia Ecclesiastica, 80) must be added a fifth which, briefly stated, is this: (5) Jewish education by its consistent teaching of lofty monotheism, and its emphasis, sometimes incidental add sometimes outstanding, upon righteousness and holiness of life as a condition of participation in a future Messianic kingdom, prepared the way for the Christian view of God and the world, set forth in its original distinctness of outline and incomparable simplicity in the teachings of Jesus.
4. The Pre?minence of Jesus as a Teacher
Jesus was more than a teacher; but He was a teacher first. To His contemporaries he appeared as a Jewish rabbi of exceptional influence and popularity. He used the teaching methods of the rabbis; gathered about Him, as did they, a group of chosen disciples (learners) whom He trained and taught more explicitly with a view to perpetuating through them His own influence and work. His followers called Him Rabbi and Master, and the scribes and Pharisees conceded His popularity and power. He taught, as did the rabbis of His time, in the temple courts, in the synagogue, in private, and on the public highway as the exigencies of the case demanded. His textbook, so far as He used any, was the same as theirs; His form of speech (parable and connected discourse), manner of life and methods of instruction were theirs. Yet into His message and method He put a new note of authority that challenged attention and inspired confidence. Breaking with the traditions of the past He substituted for devotion to the letter of the law an interest in men, with boundless sympathy for their misfortune, abiding faith in their worth and high destiny and earnest solicitude for their regeneration and perfection. To say that Jesus was the world's greatest and foremost example as a teacher is to state a fact borne out by every inquiry, test and comparison that modern educational science can apply to the work and influence of its great creative geniuses of the past. Where His contemporaries and even His own followers saw only ?as in a glass, darkly,? He saw clearly; and His view of God and the world, of human life and human destiny, has come down through the ages as a Divine revelation vouchsafed the world in Him. Viewed from the intellectual side, it was the life philosophy of Jesus that made His teachings imperishable; esthetically it was the compassionate tenderness and solicitude of His message that drew the multitudes to Him; judged from the standpoint of will, it was the example of His life, its purpose, its purity, its helpfulness, that caused men to follow Him; and tested by its immediate and lasting social influence, it was the doctrine, the ideal and example of the human brotherliness and Divine sonship, that made Jesus the pattern of the great teachers of mankind in every age and generation. With a keen, penetrating insight into the ultimate meaning of life, He reached out, as it were, over the conflicting opinions of men and the mingling social and cultural currents of His time backward to the fundamental truths uttered by the ancient prophets of His race and forward to the ultimate goal of the race. Then with simple directness of speech He addressed Himself to the consciences and wills of men, setting before them the ideal of the higher life, and with infinite patience sought to lift them to the plane of fellowship with Himself in thought and action.
5. Educational Work of the Early Disciples
It remained for the disciples of Jesus to perpetuate His teaching ministry and to organize the new forces making for human betterment. In this work, which was distinctly religious-educational in character, some found a field of labor among their own Jewish kinsmen, and others, like Paul, among the needy Gentiles (Gal_1:16; Gal_2:7; 1Ti_2:7). As regards a division of labor in the apostolic church, we read of apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors and teachers ( 1Co_12:28; Eph_4:11). The apostles were the itinerant leaders and missionaries of the entire church. Their work was largely that of teaching, Paul insisting on calling himself a teacher as well as an apostle (2Ti_1:11; 1Co_4:17). The prophets were men with a special message like that of Agabus (Act_21:10, Act_21:11). The evangelists were itinerant preachers, as was Philip (Act_8:40), while the pastors, also called bishops, had permanent charge of individual churches. The professional teachers included both laymen and those ordained by the laying on of hands. Their work was regarded with highest honor in the church and community. In contrast with the itinerant church officers, apostles and evangelists, they, like the pastors, resided permanently in local communities. With this class the author of the Epistle of Jas identifies himself, and there can be little doubt that the epistle which he wrote reflects both the content and form of the instruction which these earliest Christian teachers gave to their pupils. Before the close of the 1st century the religious educational work of the church had been organized into a more systematic form, out of which there developed gradually the catechumenate of the early post-apostolic period (see CATECHIST). In the Didache, or Teachings of the Apostles, there has been reserved for us a textbook of religious instruction from this earlier period (Kent, GTJC). Necessarily, the entire missionary and evangelistic work of the apostolic church was educational in character, and throughout this earliest period of church history we must think of the work of apostles, evangelists and pastors, as well as that of professional teachers, as including a certain amount of systematic religious instruction. See further Pedagogy; SCHOOL; TEACHER; TUTOR.
Literature
Ames, Psychology of Religious Experience, chapter x; Box, article ?Education,? in Encyclopedia Biblica; Butler, The Meaning of Education; Davidson, History of Education; Dewey, article ?Education,? in Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education; Edersheim, ?The Upbringing of Jewish Children,? in SJSL, and Life and Times of Jesus, I, 225 f; Fairweather, Background of the Gospels; Felten, ?Schriftgelehrten, Synagogen u. Schulen,? in Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte, I; Ginsburg, article ?Education,? in Kitto's Biblical Cyclopedia; Hiegemoser u. Bock, Quellenbuch u. ?berblick d. Geschichte d. P?dagogik; Katzer, articles ?Jesus als Lehrer? and ?Judenchristenturn,? in Rein's Encyklop?disches Handbuch d. P?dagogik; Kennedy, article ?Education,? in HDB, I; Kohler and Gudemann, article ?Education? in Jewish Encyclopedia, V; Kent, Great Teachers of Judaism and Christianity and Makers and Teachers of Judaism; Laurie, Historical Survey of Pre-Christian Education; Lewit, Darstellung d. theoretischen u. praktischen P?dagogik im j?d. Altertume; Oehler, article ?P?dagogik d. Alten Testaments,? in Schmid's Encyclop?die d. Gesammten Erziehungs-u. Unterrichtswesen; Sch?rer, ?Schriftgelehrsamkeit, Schule u. Synagoge,? in Geschichte d. j?d. Volkes (ed 1907); W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites; Straussburger, Geschichte d. Unterrichts bei d. Israeliten; von Rohden, article ?Katechetik? in Rein's EHP.
International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
PRINTER 1915.
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