Heart

VIEW:36 DATA:01-04-2020

HEART.—1. Instances are not wanting in the OT of the employment of this word in a physiological sense, though they are not numerous. Jacob, for example, seems to have suffered in his old age from weakness of the heart; a sudden failure of its action occurred on receipt of the unexpected but joyful news of Joseph’s great prosperity (Gen_45:26). A similar failure proved fatal in the case of Eli, also in extreme old age (1Sa_4:13-18; cf. the case of the exhausted king, 1Sa_28:20). The effect of the rending of the pericardium is referred to by Hosea as well known (1Sa_13:8); and although the proverb ‘a sound (RVm [Note: Revised Version margin.] ‘tranquil’) heart is the life of the flesh’ (Pro_14:30) is primarily intended as a psychological truth, the simile is evidently borrowed from a universally recognized physiological fact (cf. Pro_4:23). The aphorism attributed to ‘the Preacher’ (Ecc_10:2) may be interpreted in the same way; the ‘right hand’ is the symbol of strength and firmness, and the left of weakness and indecision (cf. Ecc_2:14). Nor does it appear that OT writers were ignorant of the vital functions which the heart is called on to discharge. This will be seen by their habit of using the word metaphorically as almost a synonym for the entire life (cf. Psa_22:26; Psa_69:32, Isa_1:5, where ‘head’ and ‘heart’ cover man’s whole being).
2. The preponderating use of the word is, however, psychological; and it is in this way made to cover a large variety of thought. Thus it is employed to denote the centre of man’s personal activities, the source whence the principles of his action derive their origin (see Gen_6:5; Gen_8:21, where men’s evil deeds are attributed to corruption of the heart). We are, therefore, able to understand the significance of the Psalmist’s penitential prayer, ‘Create in me a clean heart’ (Psa_51:10), and the meaning of the prophet’s declaration, ‘a new heart also will I give you’ (Eze_36:26; cf. Eze_11:19). The heart, moreover, was considered to be the seat of the emotions and passions (Deu_19:6, 1Ki_8:38, Isa_30:29; cf. Psa_104:15, where the heart is said to be moved to gladness by the use of wine). It was a characteristic, too, of Hebraistic thought which made this organ the seat of the various activities of the intellect, such as understanding (Job_34:10; Job_34:34, 1Ki_4:29), purpose or determination (Exo_14:5, 1Sa_7:3, 1Ki_8:48, Isa_10:7), consciousness (Pro_14:10, where, if EV [Note: English Version.] be an accurate tr. [Note: translate or translation.] of the original text, the heart is said to be conscious both of sorrow and of joy; cf. 1Sa_2:1), imagination (cf. Luk_1:51, Gen_8:21), memory (Psa_31:12, 1Sa_21:12; cf. Luk_2:19; Luk_2:51; Luk_1:66). The monitions of the conscience are said to proceed from the heart (Job_27:6), and the counterpart of the NT expression ‘branded in their own conscience as with a hot iron’ (1Ti_4:2 RV [Note: Revised Version.] ) is found in the OT words ‘I will harden his heart’ (Exo_4:21; cf. Deu_2:30, Jos_11:20 etc.). Closely connected with the idea of conscience is that of moral character, and so we find ‘a new heart’ as the great desideratum of a people needing restoration to full and intimate relationship with God (Eze_18:31; cf. Deu_9:5, 1Ki_11:4). It is, therefore, in those movements which characterize repentance, placed in antithesis to outward manifestations of sorrow for sin, ‘Rend your heart and not your garments’ (Joe_2:13).
3. Moving along in the direction thus outlined, and not forgetting the influence of the Apocryphal writings on later thought (cf. e.g. Wis_8:19; Wis_17:11, Sir_42:18 etc.), we shall be enabled to grasp the religious ideas enshrined in the teaching of the NT. In the recorded utterances of Jesus, so profoundly influenced by the ancient writings of the Jewish Church, the heart occupies a very central place. The beatific vision is reserved for those whose hearts are ‘pure’ (Mat_5:8; cf. 2Ti_2:22, 1Pe_1:22 RVm [Note: Revised Version margin.] ). The heart is compared to the soil on which seed is sown; it containsmoral potentialities which spring into objective existence in the outward life of the receiver (Luk_8:15; cf., however, Mar_4:15-20, where no mention is made of this organ; see also Mat_13:18, in which the heart is referred to, as in Isa_6:10, as the seat of the spiritual understanding). Hidden within the remote recesses of the heart are those principles and thoughts which will inevitably spring into active life, revealing its purity or its native corruption (Luk_6:45; cf. Mat_12:34 f., Mat_15:18 f.). It is thus that men’s characters reveal themselves in naked reality (1Pe_3:4). It is the infallible index of human character, but can be read only by Him who ‘searcheth the hearts’ (Rom_8:27; cf. 1Sa_16:7, Pro_21:2, Luk_16:15). Human judgment can proceed only according to the unerring evidence tendered by this resultant of inner forces, for ‘by their fruits ye shall know them’ (Mat_7:20). The more strictly Jewish of the NT writers show the influence of OT thought in their teaching. Where we should employ the word ‘conscience’ St. John uses ‘heart,’ whose judgments in the moral sphere are final (1Jn_3:20 f.). Nor is St. Paul free from the influence of this nomenclature. He seems, in fact, to regard conscience as a function of the heart rather than as an independent moral and spiritual organ (Rom_2:15, where both words occur; cf. the quotation Heb_10:16). In spite of the fact that the last-named Apostle frequently employs the terms ‘mind,’ ‘understanding,’ ‘reason,’ ‘thinkings,’ etc., to express the elements of intellectual activity in man, we find him constantly reverting to the heart as discharging functions closely allied to these (cf. ‘the eyes of your heart,’ Eph_1:18; see also 2Co_4:6). With St. Paul, too, the heart is the seat of the determination or will (cf. 1Co_7:37, where ‘steadfast in heart’ is equivalent to will-power). In all these and similar cases, however, it will be noticed that it is man’s moral nature that he has in view; and the moral and spiritual life, having its roots struck deep in his being, is appropriately conceived of as springing ultimately from the most essentially vital organ of his personal life.
J. R. Willis.
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible
Edited by James Hastings, D.D. Published in 1909

Often including the intellect as well as the affections and will; as conversely the "mind" often includes the feeling and will as well as the intellect. Rom_1:21, "their foolish heart was darkened." Eph_1:18, "the eyes of your understanding (the Vaticanus manuscript; but the Sinaiticus and Alexandrinus manuscripts 'heart') being enlightened." Thus, the Scripture implies that the heart and the head act and react on one another; and in men's unbelief it is the will that perverts the intellectual perceptions. Joh_7:17, "if any man be willing to (Greek) do, he shall know." "Willingness to obey" is the key to spiritual knowledge. See Jer_17:9; Hos_7:11, "Ephraim is like a silly dove without heart," i.e. "moral understanding".
Fausset's Bible Dictionary
By Andrew Robert Fausset, co-Author of Jamieson, Fausset and Brown's 1888.

The Hebrews regarded the heart as the source of wit, understanding, love, courage, grief, and pleasure. Hence are derived many modes of expression. “An honest and good heart,” Luk_8:15, is a heart studious of holiness, being prepared by the Spirit of God to receive the word with due affections, dispositions, and resolutions. We read of a broken heart, a clean heart, an evil heart, a liberal heart. To “turn the heart of the fathers to the children, and the heart of the children to their fathers,”
Mal_4:6, signifies to cause them to be perfectly reconciled, and that they should be of the same mind. To want heart, sometimes denotes to want understanding and prudence: “Ephraim is like a silly dove, without heart,” Hos_7:11. “O fools, and slow of heart,” Luk_24:25; that is, ignorant, and without understanding. “This people's heart is waxed gross, lest they should understand with their heart,” Mat_13:15; their heart is become incapable of understanding spiritual things; they resist the light, and are proof against all impressions of truth. “The prophets prophesy out of their own heart,” Eze_13:2; that is, according to their own imagination, without any warrant from God.
The heart is said to be dilated by joy, contracted by sadness, broken by sorrow, to grow fat, and be hardened by prosperity. The heart melts under discouragement, forsakes one under terror, is desolate in affliction, and fluctuating in doubt. To speak to any one's heart is to comfort him, to say pleasing and affecting things to him. The heart expresses also the middle part of any thing: “Tyre is in the heart of the seas,” Eze_27:4; in the midst of the seas. “We will not fear though the mountains be carried into the heart (middle) of the sea,” Psa_46:2.
The heart of man is naturally depraved and inclined to evil, Jer_17:9. A divine power is requisite for its renovation, Joh_3:1-11. When thus renewed, the effects will be seen in the temper, conversation, and conduct at large. Hardness of heart is that state in which a sinner is inclined to, and actually goes on in, rebellion against God.
Biblical and Theological Dictionary by Richard Watson
PRINTER 1849.

Both Old and New Testaments speak repeatedly of the heart as the centre of a person’s inner life. An examination of the hundreds of references to the heart in the Bible will show that the word is not limited in its meaning to one particular part of a person.
‘Heart’ may refer to a person’s whole inner life – what the person really is (1Sa_16:7; Psa_22:26; Pro_4:23; Mat_22:37; 1Th_2:4); or it may refer to attributes of human personality such as a person’s understanding (1Ki_3:9; Pro_2:10; 1Co_2:9; Eph_1:18), desires (Deu_24:15; Pro_6:25; Mat_6:21; Rom_1:24), feelings (Jdg_19:6; Pro_14:10; Pro_15:30; Joh_14:27; Jam_3:14), determination (Exo_8:15; 1Ki_8:58; Rom_6:17; Col_3:22), or character (1Sa_13:14; Jer_5:23; Rom_2:29; 2Th_3:5; 1Pe_3:4).
Sometimes ‘heart’ is used as another word for a person’s spirit (Psa_51:10; Psa_51:17; Eze_36:26), soul (Deu_4:29; Pro_2:10; Act_4:32) or mind (1Sa_2:35; Eph_1:18; Heb_8:10; cf. Mat_22:37). (See also HUMANITY, HUMANKIND; MIND; SOUL; SPIRIT.)
The heart is what is sometimes referred to as ‘the inner being’, and is the source of all the wrong that a person does (Pro_6:14; Pro_6:18; Jer_17:9; Mar_7:21-23; Rom_1:24-25; Eph_4:18; see SIN). Therefore, the heart must be cleansed to bring forgiveness; or, to use another picture, it must be re-created to bring new spiritual life. Only God can bring about this cleansing or re-creation (Psa_51:10; Eze_36:26; Act_8:21-22; Eph_3:16; Heb_10:22).
Since the heart determines actions, a person must be careful to have right attitudes of heart at all times (Lev_19:17; Psa_4:4; 1Ti_1:5; Jam_3:14). God sees the inner condition and judges the person accordingly (1Sa_16:7; Psa_44:21; Mat_5:8; Rev_2:23; see also CONSCIENCE).
Bridgeway Bible Dictionary by Don Fleming
PRINTER 1990.

hart (לב, lēbh, לבב, lēbhābh; καρδία, kardı́a): The different senses in which the word occurs in the Old Testament and the New Testament may be grouped under the following heads:
1. Various Meanings
It represents in the first place the bodily organ, and by easy transition those experiences which affect or are affected by the body. Fear, love, courage, anger, Joy, sorrow, hatred are always ascribed to the heart - especially in the Old Testament; thus courage for which usually rūaḥ is used (Psa_27:14); joy (Psa_4:7); anger (Deu_19:6, ?while his heart is hot,? lēbhābh); fear (1Sa_25:37); sorrow (Psa_13:2), etc.
Hence, naturally it came to stand for the man himself (Deu_7:17; ?say in thine heart,? Isa_14:13).
2. Heart and Personality
As representing the man himself, it was considered to be the seat of the emotions and passions and appetites (Gen_18:5; Lev_19:17; Psa_104:15), and embraced likewise the intellectual and moral faculties - though these are necessarily ascribed to the ?soul? as well. This distinction is not always observed.
3. Soul and Heart
?Soul? in Hebrew can never be rendered by ?heart?; nor can ?heart? be considered as a synonym for ?soul.? Cremer has well observed: ?The Hebrew nephesh (?soul?) is never translated kardia (?heart?).... The range of the Hebrew nephesh, to which the Greek psuchḗ alone corresponds, differs so widely from the ideas connected with psuchē, that utter confusion would have ensued had psuchē been employed in an unlimited degree for lēbh (?heart?). The Biblical lēbh never, like psuchē, denotes the personal subject, nor could it do so. That which in classical Greek is ascribed to psuchē (a good soul, a just soul, etc.) is in the Bible ascribed to the heart alone and cannot be otherwise? (Cremer, Lexicon, article ?Kardia,? 437ff, German edition).
4. Center of Vital Action
In the heart vital action is centered (1Ki_21:7). ?Heart,? except as a bodily organ, is never ascribed to animals, as is the case sometimes with nephesh and rūaḥ (Lev_17:11, ה, nephesh; Gen_2:19; Num_16:22; Gen_7:22, ה, ruaḥ). ?Heart? is thus often used interchangeably with these two (Gen_41:8; Psa_86:4; Psa_119:20); but ?it never denotes the personal subject, always the personal organ.?
5. Heart and Mind
As the central organ in the body, forming a focus for its vital action, it has come to stand for the center of its moral, spiritual, intellectual life. ?In particular the heart is the place in which the process of self-consciousness is carried out, in which the soul is at home with itself, and is conscious of all its doing and suffering as its own? (Oehler). Hence, it is that men of ?courage? are called ?men of the heart?; that the Lord is said to speak ?in his heart? (Gen_8:21); that men ?know in their own heart? (Deu_8:5); that ?no one considereth in his heart' (Isa_44:19 the King James Version). ?Heart? in this connection is sometimes rendered ?mind,? as in Num_16:28 (?of mine own mind,? Vulgate (Jerome's Latin Bible, 390-405 ad) ex proprio corde, Septuagint ap' emautoú); the foolish ?is void of understanding,? i.e. ?heart? (Pro_6:32, where the Septuagint renders phrenō̇n, Vulgate (Jerome's Latin Bible, 390-405 ad) cordis, Luther ?der ist ein Narr?). God is represented as ?searching the heart? and ?trying the reins? (Jer_17:10 the King James Version). Thus, ?heart? comes to stand for ?conscience,? for which there is no word in Hebrew, as in Job_27:6, ?My heart shall not reproach me,? or in 1Sa_24:5, ?David's heart smote him?; compare 1Sa_25:31. From this it appears, in the words of Owen: ?The heart in Scripture is variously used, sometimes for the mind and understanding, sometimes for the will, sometimes for the affections, sometimes for the conscience, sometimes for the whole soul. Generally, it denotes the whole soul of man and all the faculties of it, not absolutely, but as they are all one principle of moral operations, as they all concur in our doing of good and evil.?
6. Figurative Senses
The radical corruption of human nature is clearly taught in Scripture and brought into connection with the heart. It is ?uncircumcised? (Jer_9:26; Eze_44:7; compare Act_7:51); and ?hardened? (Exo_4:21); ?wicked? (Pro_26:23); ?perverse? (Pro_11:20); ?godless? (Job_36:13); ?deceitful and desperately wicked? (Jer_17:9 the King James Version). It defiles the whole man (Mat_15:19, Mat_15:20); resists, as in the case of Pharaoh, the repeated call of God (Exo_7:13). There, however, the law of God is written (Rom_2:15); there the work of grace is wrought (Act_15:9), for the ?heart? may be ?renewed? by grace (Eze_36:26), because the ?heart? is the seat of sin (Gen_6:5; Gen_8:21).
7. Process of Heart Renewal
This process of heart-renewal is indicated in various ways. It is the removal of a ?stony heart? (Eze_11:19). The heart becomes ?clean? (Psa_51:10); ?fixed? (Psa_112:7) through ?the fear? of the Lord (1Sa_25:1); ?With the heart man believeth? (Rom_10:10); on the ?heart? the power of God is exercised for renewal (Jer_31:33). To God the bereaved apostles pray as a knower of the heart (Act_1:24 - a word not known to classical writers, found only here in the New Testament and in Act_15:8, kardiognō̇stēs). In the ?heart? God's Spirit dwells with might (Eph_3:16, eis tón ésō ánthrōpon); in the ?heart? God's love is poured forth (Rom_5:5). The Spirit of His son has been ?sent forth into the heart? (Gal_4:6); the ?earnest of the Spirit? has been given ?in the heart? (2Co_1:22). In the work of grace, therefore, the heart occupies a position almost unique.
8. The Heart First
We might also refer here to the command, on which both the Old Testament and New Testament revelation of love is based: ?Thou shalt love Yahweh thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy might? (Deu_6:5); where ?heart? always takes the first place, and is the term which in the New Testament rendering remains unchanged (compare Mat_22:37; Mar_12:30, Mar_12:33; Luk_10:27, where ?heart? always takes precedence).
9. A Term for ?Deepest?
A bare reference may be made to the employment of the term for that which is innermost, hidden, deepest in anything (Exo_15:8; Jon_2:3), the very center of things. This we find in all languages. Compare Eph_3:16, Eph_3:17, ?in the inward man,? as above.

International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
PRINTER 1915.

All the phrases, more or less metaphorical, in which this word occurs, are rendered intelligible, without detailed examples, when we are told that the heart was, among the Hebrews, regarded poetically not only as the seat of the passions and emotions, as of love, pleasure, and grief, but also of the intellectual faculties?the mind, the understanding. In the original Scriptures, as well as in the English and other translations, the word 'heart' therefore, constantly occurs where 'mind' is to be understood, and would be used by a modern English writer. We say modern, because the ancient usage of the English word 'heart' was more conformable than the present to that of the Hebrews.
The Popular Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature
by John Kitto.

The word "heart" is used in the Scriptures to indicate many attitudes of the mind and many various kinds of affections and reactions. It is described as being deceitful in Jer_17:9. This evidently means that it will lead us astray by its feelings and its attitudes so that we must not trust in our own desires, but rather be led by the Word of GOD.

We read that the Lord searches the heart, Jer_17:10. By this is indicated that the Lord examines our motives, desires and feelings to see if they agree with His will.

In Jos_24:23 we read about the heart that is inclined to the Lord.

Our Lord spoke of being "in the heart of the earth." Mat_12:40. This does not refer to the grave which is on the surface of the earth. It refers to hell, which is actually in the center of this earth. The Lord JESUS did go down to that part of hell where the Old Testament saints were kept in conscious comfort until the Lord JESUS would shed His Blood for them. After Calvary, He went down into this place and "led captivity captive." They were now ready to go into GOD's presence because His Blood had blotted out their sins. The blood of the sacrifices which they had brought only covered their sins.

There is an honest and good heart described in Luk_8:15. This refers to that sweet attitude of confidence and trust in GOD wherein the person listens with a hunger and a thirst for the revelation of GOD's will through His Word. It indicates that this person loves to receive GOD's instructions, and to accept GOD's provisions.

A broken heart is described in Psa_34:18, and Psa_51:17. By this expression is meant that deep grief has fallen upon that friend, tears have flowed, the shadows have fallen, and grief has stricken the spirit.

In Heb_3:12 we read of an "evil heart of unbelief in departing from the living God." Those who are afflicted in this way are those who doubt GOD, refuse to believe His promise, and seek relief from some other source. They do not believe that GOD is a living Person who will actually work on their behalf.

At the end of the Old Testament in Mal_4:6, we read of a heart that is turned unto the Lord. This is a work of the Spirit of GOD in causing the mind and the desire of the person to come back to GOD from paths of disobedience and sin.

The stony heart is described in Eze_11:19, and chapter 36:26. This describes the person who steadfastly and stubbornly refuses to believe GOD's Word, and will not have the authority of GOD in his life. He is not moved by any preaching, nor stirred by any invitation. The Word of GOD makes no impression on his soul.

The heart that fails describes that one who is overcome with fear, horror and despair. He has no strength left for the conflict. He is made weak. He seems to be helpless and hopeless. This heart is described in 1Sa_17:32, and in Luk_21:26.

We read in 2Co_3:3 of the fleshy heart. This passage really refers to the physical heart which is made of flesh. Somehow and in some mysterious way the Spirit of GOD works in our souls to bring about deep feelings of worship, love and devotion. One really does feel it in the bosom when those emotions arise.

The understanding heart is mentioned in 1Ki_3:9, 12. The thought is that there is a deep and confiding trustful interest in GOD and in His Word. The figure is in contrast with a simple, mental knowledge which does not affect the life nor the actions.

The expression found in Luk_24:25 "slow of heart" refers to, that attitude of the heart wherein the person questions the truth of GOD's statements, and hesitates about believing in the Word and work of CHRIST JESUS.

One miracle of GOD's grace is found in the expression "the multitude was of one heart."

Act_4:32. By this we understand that all this great crowd thought alike, felt alike, acted alike, and planned alike. What a wonderful church this would make. The expression "lay it to heart" describes that attitude in which one will accept the Word that he hears, and will apply it to his own soul. He will make the message a personal message to his own self, and will seek to act upon it. This is true in Ecc_7:2; Isa_47:7; Mal_2:2.

Gen_6:6 (a) This represents GOD's innermost feelings in regard to His dealings and relationships with men.

Job_23:16 (a) The troubles and sorrows that had come upon Job caused him to be very tender and soft in his spirit so that there was no pride, hardness, nor self-sufficiency in his heart.

Pro_16:1 (a) By this figure is represented the feelings and the desires of men.

Jer_17:9-10 (a) This type represents the purposes and the desires which actuate the thoughts and actions of men.

Mar_7:21 (a) This figure represents the soul and mind of a human being, his innermost self, his real self.
Wilson's Dictionary of Bible Types
press 1957.

Heart
in the Biblical sense (καρδία; לֵבor לֵבָב, often exchanged for קֶרֶב, in a more extended sense, as in Psa_39:3-4; Psa_109:22; 1Sa_25:37, the whole region of the chest, with its contents; see Delitzsch, System of Biblical Psychology, § 12, 13. According to Hupfeld, חֵלֶב, in Psa_17:10, and Psa_73:7, means simply the heart, which is not very likely).
1. In the Biblical point of view, human life, in all its operations, is centered in the heart. The heart is the central organ of the physical circulation; hence the necessity for strengthening the body as a support for the heart (סָעִד לֵב, Gen_18:5; Jdg_19:5; Psa_104:15); and the exhaustion of physical power is called a drying up of the heart (Psa_102:5; Psa_22:15, etc.). So, also, is the heart the center of spiritual activity; for all spiritual aims, whether belonging to the intellectual, moral, or pathological spheres, are elaborated in the heart, and again carried out by the heart. In fact, the whole life of the soul, in the lower and sensual, as well as in the higher spheres, has its origin in the heart (Pro_4:23, For out of it are the issues of life”). In order to follow this train of thought, and to establish in a clearer light the Biblical view of the heart, it will be best to consider the relation the heart bears to the soul (ψυχή, נֶפֶשׁ). This is one of the difficult questions in Biblical psychology; Olshausen (in the Abh. de naturae humanae trichotomia, opusc. theol. p. 159) says, “Omnium longe difficillimum est accurate definire quidnam discrimen in N.T. inter ψυχήν et καρδίαν, intercedat.” Nevertheless, the task is facilitated by the fact that there is essential agreement on this point in the anthropologies of the Old and New Testament.
(1) We first note that, while, as before said, the heart is the center of all the functions of the soul's life, the terms “heart” and “soul” are often used interchangeably in Scripture. Thus, in Deu_6:5 (compare Mat_22:37; Mar_12:30; Mar_12:33; Luk_10:27), and Deu_26:16, we are commanded to love God and obey his commandments with all our heart and all our soul (compare 1Ch_28:9); the union of the faithful, in Act_4:12, is designated as ην ἡ καρδία καἱ ἡ ψυχὴ μία. (In these passages, as in others, for instance, Deu_11:18; Deu_30:2; Jer_32:41, there is, moreover, to be noticed that the heart is always named first.) Thus the indecision and division of the inner life can be designated either by δίψυχος (Jam_1:8) or by καρδία δισσή. It is said of both ἁγνιζειν καρδίας (Jam_4:8) and ἁγνίζειν ψυχάς (1Pe_1:22); also שָׁפִךְ נָפְשׁוֹ(Psa_42:5; comp. Job_30:16) and שָׁפִךְ לַבּוֹ (Lam_2:10; Psa_62:9), the self-impelling to the love of God applies as well to the soul (Psalms 103) as to the קְכַבַים, of which the heart is the center, etc. But in the majority of passages, where either the heart or the soul are separately spoken of, the term “heart” can either not be exchanged at. all for the term “soul,” or else only with some modification in the meaning.
(2) Note also the following fundamental distinction: The soul is the bearer of the personality (i.e. of the ego, the proper self) of man, in virtue of the indwelling spirit (Pro_20:27; 1Co_2:11), but yet is not itself the person of man; the heart, on the contrary (the חִדנְרֵי בֶטֶן, Pro_20:27), is the place where the process of self-consciousness is developed, in which the soul finds itself, and thus becomes conscious of its actions and impressions as its own (“in corde actiones animae humanae ad ipsam redeunt,” as is concisely and correctly said by Roos in his Fundam. psychol. ex s. scr., 1769, p. 99). Accordingly the soul, not the heart, is spoken of when the 8:39; Luk_16:15; Pro_17:3; Psa_7:10; Psa_17:3; Jer_11:20). Therefore also man is designated according to his heart in all that relates to habitual moral qualities; thus we read of a wise heart (1Ki_5:12; Pro_10:8, etc.), a pure heart (Psa_41:12; Mat_5:8; 1Ti_1:5; 2Ti_2:22), an upright and righteous heart (Gen_20:5-6; Psa_11:2; Psa_78:72; Psa_101:2), a single heart (Eph_5:5; Col_3:22), a pious and good heart (Luk_8:15), a lowly heart (Mat_11:29), etc. In all these places it would be difficult to introduce נֶפֶשׁor ψυχή:
(2) We must also observe that the original divine rule of conduct for man was implanted in his heart, and therefore the heart is the seat of the συνείδησις, or conscience, which has a mission to proclaim that rule (Rom_2:15). All subsequent divine revelations were also directed to the heart (Deu_6:6); so the law demands that God should be loved with the whole heart, and then, as though by radiation from this center, with the whole soul (comp. Deu_11:18; Psa_119:11, etc.). The teaching of wisdom also enters the heart, and from thence spreads its healing and vivifying influence through the whole organism (Pro_4:21-23). The prophetic consolations must speak to the heart (Isa_40:2), in contradistinction from such consolations as do not reach the bottom of human nature; thus also in Mat_13:9; Luk_8:15, we find the heart described as the ground on which the seed of the divine Word is to be — sowed. That which becomes assimilated to the heart constitutes the θησαυρὸς τῆς καρδίας (Mat_12:35). This, however, may not only be ἀγαθός, but also πονηρὀς; for the human heart is not only a recipient of divine principles of life, but also of evil.
(3) In opposition to the superficial doctrine which makes man in regard to morals an indifferent being, Scripture presents to us the doctrine of the natural wickedness of the human heart, the יֵצֶר לֵב(Gen_8:21), or, more completely, מִחְשְׁבֵתּ לֵב יֵצֵר (Gen_6:5; compare 1Ch_28:9), and considers sin as having penetrated the center of life, from whence it contaminates its whole course. “How can ye, being evil, speak good things? for out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaketh” (Mat_12:34; comp. Ecc_8:11; Psa_73:7); and those things which come out of the heart defile the man (Mat_15:18). The heart is described as “deceitful (or, more properly, עָקבֹ, crooked, the opposite of יָשָׁרstraight) above all things, and desperately wicked” (אָנוּשׁ) (Jer_17:9); so that God alone can thoroughly sound the depths of its wickedness (compare 1Jn_3:20). Hence the prayer in Psa_139:23. In this natural state of insusceptibility for good the heart is called uncircumcised, עָרֵל(Num_26:41; compare Deu_10:16; Eze_44:9). Man, frightened at the manifestation of divine holiness, may take within himself the resolution of fulfilling the divine commands (Deu_5:24); yet the divine voice complains (Deu_5:29), “Oh that there were such a heart in them that they would fear me!” etc. Therefore the whole Revelation has for its object to change the heart of man; and its whole aim is to destroy, by virtue of its divine efficacy, the insusceptibility (“stupiditas, qua centrum animse laborat,” as Roos expresses it, p. 153) and the antagonism of the heart, and to substitute for them the fear of God in the heart (Jer_32:40), so that the law may be admitted (Jer_31:33). This is the effect of the operations of the Holy Spirit, whose workings, as shown in the O.T., point to the regeneration of the heart in redemption (Eze_36:26 sq.; Eze_11:19), transforming the prophets to new creatures by means of a change of heart (1Sa_10:6; 1Sa_10:9), and implanting a willingness to obey God's law in the pious (Psa_51:12-14).
(4) On the part of man, the process of salvation begins in the heart by the faith awakened by the testimony of revelation; which, as giving a new direction to the inner life, belongs entirely to the sphere of the heart, and is described as a fastening (according to the original meaning of הֶאֵַמין), a strengthening (האמיוֹ, Psa_27:14; Psa_31:24), a supporting of the heart (comp. particularly Psa_112:7) on the ground which is God himself, the צוּד לֵבָב (Psa_73:26). The N.T. says in the same manner: καρδίᾷ πιστεύεται (Rom_10:9-10), πιστεύειν ἐξ ὅλης τῆς καρδίας; faith is a μὴ διακρίνεσδαι ἐν καρδίᾷ (Mar_1:23). God purifies the heart by faith in Christ (Act_15:9), for by the sprinkling of the blood of atonement the heart is rid of the bad conscience (Heb_10:22; compare 1Jn_3:19-21), and the love of God is shed in it by the Holy Ghost (Rom_5:5). The same spirit also seals in the heart the assurance of being a child of God (2Co_1:22); the heart becomes the abode of Christ (Eph_3:16), is preserved in Christ (Col_3:15; Php_4:7), and strengthened in sanctification (1Th_3:13, etc.).
When, on the contrary, man rejects the testimony of revelation, the heart becomes hardened, turns to stone (הַקַשָׁה, Psa_96:8; Pro_28:14; אַמֵּוֹ. 2Ch_36:13; חַזֵּק, Exo_4:21; כַּבֵּד, 1Sa_6:6), for which we find it also said that the heart is shut (Isa_44:18), made fat (Isa_6:10; compare Psa_119:70). In the N. Test. we find πωρώσις καρδίας (Mar_3:5; Eph_4:18); σκληροκαρδία (Mat_19:8, etc.). The most important passage in this respect is Isa_6:10, where we find it particularly stated how the unsusceptible heart renders one unable to see the work of God, to hear his Word, and how this inability reacts on the heart, and renders its state incurable.
3. Finally, the question of the position the heart, as center of the spiritual life of the soul, holds in regard to the heart, considered as the center of the organic (physical) life, cannot be fully treated except in a thorough investigation of the relations between the body and soul in general. We will only remark here that the Scriptures not only draw a parallel between the body and the soul, by virtue of which the bodily actions are considered as symbols of the spiritual, but also establish the position that the soul, which is the bearer of the personality, is the same which directs also the life and actions; and thus the bodily organs, in their higher functions, become its adjuncts. Now, in view of the well-known fact that emotions and sufferings affect the physical economy for example, that the pulsations of the heart are affected by them--no one will consider it a mere figure of speech when the Psalmist says, “My heart was hot within me” (Psa_39:3), or Jeremiah speaks of “a burning fire shut up in his bones” (Jer_20:9; comp. Jer_4:19; Jer_23:9).
But there is one point worthy of special attention in Biblical anthropology, namely, the specific relation the Bible establishes between certain parts of the bodily organism and particular actions (see what Delitzsch, Biblical Psychology, § 12, 13, deduces from the Biblical signification of the
רִחֲמַים, the liver, the kidneys), and then the part attributed to the heart in knowledge and will, considered aside from the head and brain. It is well known that all antiquity agreed with the Biblical views in these respects. In regard to Homer's doctrine, see Nagelsbach's Homer. Theologie, p. 332 sq. We may also on this point recall the expressions cordatus, recordari, vecors, excors, etc. (see especially Cicero, Tusc. 1, 9, 18, and Plato, Phaed. c. 45, and-the commentators on these passages). As Delitzsch correctly observes, the spiritual signification of the heart cannot be traced back to t from the mere fact of its being the central organ of the circulation. The manner in which that writer has made use of the phenomena of somnambulism to explain this is deserving of due notice, yet physiology has thus far been unable to throw any light on the subject. — Oehler, in Herzog, Real-Encyklop. 6, 15 sq.
4. The heart expresses the middle of anything: “Tyre is in the heart,” in the midst, “of the sea” (Eze_27:4). “We will not fear, though the mountains be carried into the heart of the sea” (Psa_46:2). “As Jonah was three days and three nights in the whale's belly, so shall the Son of man be three days and three nights in the heart of the earth” (Mat_12:40). Moses, speaking to the Israelites, says, “And the mountain burnt with fire, unto the heart of heaven;” the flame rose as high as the clouds.
To “say in one's heart” is a Hebrew expression for thinking (Psa_10:6; Psa_14:1). SEE SOUL.
5. Of special religious importance are the following practical uses of the word:
Hardness of heart is “that state in which a sinner is inclined to and actually goes on in rebellion against God. This state evidences itself by light views of the evil of sin; partial acknowledgment and confession of it; frequent commission of it; pride and conceit; ingratitude; unconcern about the Word and ordinances of God; inattention to divine providences; stifling convictions of conscience; shunning reproof; presumption, and general ignorance of divine things.”
Keeping the heart is “a duty enjoined in the sacred Scriptures. It consists, says Flavel, in the diligent and constant use and improvement of all holy means and duties to preserve the soul from sin, and maintain communion with God; and this, he properly observes, supposes a previous work of sanctification, which hath set the heart right by giving it a new bent and inclination.
1. It includes frequent observation of the frame of the heart (Psa_77:6).
2. Deep humiliation for heart evils and disorders (2Ch_32:26).
3. Earnest supplication for heart purifying and rectifying grace (Psa_19:12).
4. A constant holy jealousy over our hearts (Pro_27:14).
5. It includes the realizing of God's presence with us, and setting him before us (Psa_16:8; Gen_17:1).
This is,
1. The hardest work; heart work is hard work indeed.
2. Constant work (Exo_17:12). 3. The most important work (Pro_23:26).
This is a duty which should be attended to if we consider it in connection with,
1. The honor of God (Isa_66:3).
2. The sincerity of our profession (2Ki_10:31; Eze_32:31-32).
3. The beauty of our conversation (Pro_12:26; Psa_45:1).
4. The comfort of our souls (2Co_13:5).
5. The improvement of our graces (Psa_63:5-6).
6. The stability of our souls in the hour of temptation (1Co_16:13).
The seasons in which we should more particularly keep our hearts are,
1. The time of our prosperity (Deu_6:10; Deu_6:12).
2. Under afflictions (Heb_7:5-6).
3. The time of Sion's troubles (Psa_46:1; Psa_46:4).
4. In the time of great and threatening danger (Isa_26:20-21).
5. Under great wants (Php_4:6-7).
6. In the time of duty (Lev_10:3).
7. Under injuries received (Rom_12:17, etc.).
8. In the critical hour of temptation (Mat_26:41).
9. Under dark and doubting seasons (Heb_12:8; Isaiah 1, 10).
10. In time of opposition and suffering (1Pe_4:12-13).
11. The time of sickness and death (Jer_49:11).
The means to be made use of to keep our hearts are,
1. Watchfulness (Mar_13:37).
2. Examination (Pro_4:26).
3. Prayer (Luk_18:1).
4. Reading God's Word (Joh_5:39).
5. Dependence on divine grace (Psa_86:11). See Flavel, On Keeping the Heart; Jamieson, Sermons on the Heart.”

CYCLOPEDIA OF BIBLICAL, THEOLOGICAL AND ECCLESIASTICAL
press 1895.

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