Horse
VIEW:36 DATA:01-04-2020
HORSE.The Israelites must have been acquainted with horses in Egypt (Gen_47:17), and it is evident, too, from the Tell el-Amarna correspondence that horses were familiar animals in Palestine at an early period; but it would appear that the children of Israel were slow in adopting them. Throughout the OT up to the Exile they appear only as war-horses; the ass, the mule, and the camel were the beasts for riding and burden-bearing. Even for warlike purposes horses were only slowly adopted, the mountainous regions held by the Israelites being unsuitable for chariot warfare. David commenced acquiring chariots (2Sa_8:4), and Solomon greatly added to their numbers, obtaining horses for them from Musri [not Mizraim, Egypt] in N. Syria and Kue, in Cilicia (1Ki_10:28, 2Ch_1:16 [amending the text]). Horses were obtained also from Egypt (Isa_31:1; Isa_31:3, Eze_17:15). Some of the references may be to hired horsemen. The kings of Israel were warned against multiplying horses (Deu_17:16). Trust in horses is put in antithesis to trust in the Lord (Isa_30:16, Psa_20:7; Psa_33:17). Before the reforms of Josiah, horses sacred to the sun were kept in the Temple (2Ki_23:11; cf. 2Ki_11:16). The appearance of the war-horse seems to have made a deep impression (Job_39:19-25, Jer_47:3, Nah_3:2 etc.). After the Exile horses were much more common: the returning Jews brought 736 horses with them (Neh_7:68). Horses were fed on barley and tibn (chopped straw) in Solomons time as in Palestine to-day (1Ki_4:28). Although the breeding of horses has become so intimately associated with our ideas of the Arabs, it would seem that during the whole OT period horses were unknown, or at least scarce, in Arabia. The equipment of horses is mentioned in the Biblethe bit and bridle (Psa_32:9, Pro_26:3), bells of the horses (Zec_14:20), and precious clothes for chariots (Eze_27:20). In OT times they were apparently unshod (Isa_5:28).
E. W. G. Masterman.
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible
Edited by James Hastings, D.D. Published in 1909
In Scripture used for war-like purposes, not agriculture (except in treading out grain for threshing, Isa_28:28, where for "horsemen" translated "horses".) Job's magnificent description refers to the war horse (Isa_39:19-25), "hast thou clothed his neck with thunder?" i.e. with the power of inspiring terror. Rather "with majesty" (Umbreit), "with quivering mane" (Maurer). The Greek connection between mane (fobee) and terror (fobos) favors A.V. which is more poetic. "Canst thou make him afraid (rather 'make him spring') as a grasshopper?" So in Joe_2:4 war horses are compared to locusts. Their heads are so like that the Italian for "locust" is cavaletta, "little horse." "The glory of his nostrils is terrible: he paweth in the valley and rejoiceth in strength, he goeth on," etc.; "he swalloweth the ground with fierceness," i.e. draws it in fierce impatience toward him with his hoof, as if he would "swallow" it.
"Neither believeth he (for joy) that it is the sound of the trumpet," rather "he will not stand still at the sound." "He saith among the trumpets, Ha, ha!" his mettlesome neighing expressing his eagerness for battle, which "he smelleth," snuffeth, i.e. discerneth, "the thunder (i.e. thundering voice) of the captains." (See CHARIOT.) The donkey is the emblem of peace. The bride is compared to "a company of horses in Pharaoh's chariots" (Son_1:9), namely, in ardor and beauty (Son_1:4, "run"; Son_1:5, "comely"), and in forming "a company" militant, orderly, and numerous (Rev_19:7; Rev_19:14). The qualities which seemed preeminent in the enemy Pharaoh's hosts at the Red Sea really belonged to Israel. Maurer translated "I compare thee to my mare in chariots of (i.e. received from) Pharaoh," but the plural "chariots" requires the collective sense "a company of horses."
The "cutting off of the horse from Jerusalem" prophetically symbolizes the cessation of war (Zec_9:10). Not the horse's speed or utility but his "strength" is his characteristic in Scripture (Psa_33:17). Two names are used in Hebrew, both Persian in origin: sus from Susa, and parash from Pares. The sus was of stronger make, used for the war chariot; the parash more for riding. Perhaps in Exo_14:9 "horsemen" mean "chariot riders." Certainly no Egyptian monument represents horsemen. Translated in 1Ki_4:26, "forty (rather 'four,' a copyist's error, as 2Ch_9:25 proves. Also 1400 chariots suit 4000 horses, two horses for each chariot and a reserve horse: 2Ch_1:14; 1Ki_10:26) thousand chariot horses and twelve thousand riding (i.e. cavalry) horses"; Eze_27:14, "with (chariot) horses and riding horses" (KJV "horsemen".)
Isa_21:7, "a chariot with a couple of horsemen"; rather "a cavalcade of horsemen riding in pairs." In 1Ki_4:28; Est_8:14; Mic_1:13, rekesh "dromedary"; rather "a courser," a "racehorse," for such purposes as the royal post. In 1Ki_10:28-29, the sense seems that the Egyptians regularly brought horses to a mart in S. Palestine (Septuagint and Vulgate name the mart in their translation), of the Hebrew Koa. In A. V. Mi-Kveh is translated "linen yarn") and handed them to the king's dealers at a fixed price, 150 shekels for one horse, 600 for a chariot, including its two draught horses and one reserve horse. In Gen_12:15 horses are not mentioned among the possessions which Abram acquired during his sojourn in Egypt. But in Gen_47:17 they stand foremost among the Egyptians' possessions. In later times, the greater contact of Egypt with Canaanite and Arab nomads' accounts for the introduction of horses.
The camel, one of Abram's possessions in Egypt, is not mentioned in Joseph's time nor on the Egyptian monuments. Their early possession of the desert of Sinai makes it certain they knew and must have used the camel there, "the ship of the desert," but they avoid mentioning it as being unclean. Saddles were not used until a late period. Horses' hoofs hard "as flint" were a good point in days when shoeing was unknown (Isa_5:28). White horses were emblematic of victory (Rev_6:2; Rev_19:11; Rev_19:14). Horses were consecrated to the sun, since that luminary was supposed to drive a fiery chariot through the sky (2Ki_23:11). They were driven in procession to meet the rising sun.
Fausset's Bible Dictionary
By Andrew Robert Fausset, co-Author of Jamieson, Fausset and Brown's 1888.
Horse. The most striking feature in the biblical notices of the horse is the exclusive application of it to warlike operations; in no instance is that useful animal employed for the purposes of ordinary locomotion or agriculture, if we except Isa_28:28. The animated description of the horse in Job_39:19-25 applies solely to the war-horse.
The Hebrews in the patriarchal age, as a pastoral race, did not stand in need of the services of the horse, and for a long period after their settlement in Canaan, they dispensed with it, partly in consequence of the hilly nature of the country, which only admitted of the use of chariots in certain localities, Jdg_1:19, and partly in consequence to the prohibition in Deu_17:16 which would be held to apply at all periods.
David first established a force of cavalry and chariots, 2Sa_8:4, but the great supply of horses was subsequently effected by Solomon through his connection with Egypt. 1Ki_4:26. Solomon also established a very active trade in horses, which were brought by dealers out of Egypt and resold, at a profit, to the Hittites.
With regard to the trappings and management of the horse, we have little information. The bridle was placed over the horse's nose, Isa_30:28, and a bit or curb is also mentioned. 2Ki_19:28; Psa_32:9; Pro_26:3; Isa_37:29. In the Authorized Version, it is incorrectly given "bridle," with the exception of Psa_32:1. Saddles were not used until a late period. The horses were not shod, and, therefore, hoofs as hard "as flint," Isa_5:28, were regarded as a great merit. The chariot-horses were covered with embroidered trappings Eze_27:20. Horses and chariots were used also in idolatrous processions, as noticed in regard to the sun. 2Ki_23:11.
Smith's Bible Dictionary
By Dr. William Smith.Published in 1863
סוס . Horses were very rare among the Hebrews in the early ages. The patriarchs had none; and after the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, God expressly forbade their ruler to procure them: He shall not multiply horses to himself, nor cause the people to return to Egypt, to the end that he should multiply horses: forasmuch as the Lord hath said, Ye shall henceforth return no more that way, Deu_17:16. As horses appear to have been generally furnished by Egypt, God prohibits these,
1. Lest there should be such commerce with Egypt as might lead to idolatry.
2. Lest the people might depend on a well appointed cavalry, as a means of security, and so cease from trusting in the promised aid and protection of Jehovah.
3. That they might not be tempted to extend their dominion by means of cavalry, and so get scattered among the surrounding idolatrous nations, and thus cease in process of time, to be that distinct and separate people which God intended they should be, and without which the prophecies relative to the Messiah could not be known to have their due and full accomplishment. In the time of the Judges we find horses and war chariots among the Canaanites, but still the Israelites had none; and hence they were generally too timid to venture down into the plains, confining their conquests to the mountainous parts of the country. In the reign of Saul, it would appear, that horse breeding had not yet been introduced into Arabia; for, in a war with some of the Arabian nations, the Israelites got plunder in camels, sheep, and asses, but no horses. David's enemies brought against him a strong force of cavalry into the field; and in the book of Psalms the horse commonly appears only on the side of the enemies of the people of God; and so entirely unaccustomed to the management of this animal had the Israelites still continued, that, after a battle, in which they took a considerable body of cavalry prisoners, 2Sa_8:4, David caused most of the horses to be cut down, because he did not know what use to make of them. Solomon was the first who established a cavalry force.
Under these circumstances, it is not wonderful that the Mosaic law should take no notice of an animal which we hold in such high estimation. To Moses, educated as he was in Egypt, and, with his people, at last chased out by Pharaoh's cavalry, the use of the horse for war and for travelling was well known; but as it was his object to establish a nation of husbandmen, and not of soldiers for the conquest of foreign lands, and as Palestine, from its situation, required not the defence of cavalry, he might very well decline introducing among his people the yet unusual art of horse breeding. Solomon, having married a daughter of Pharaoh, procured a breed of horses from Egypt; and so greatly did he multiply them, that he had four hundred stables, forty thousand stalls, and twelve thousand horsemen, 1Ki_4:26; 2Ch_9:25. It seems that the Egyptian horses were in high repute, and were much used in war. When the Israelites were disposed to place too implicit confidence in the assistance of cavalry, the prophet remonstrated in these terms: The Egyptians are men, and not God, and their horses are flesh, not spirit,
Isa_31:3.
Biblical and Theological Dictionary by Richard Watson
PRINTER 1849.
hôrs:
1. Names
The common names are (1) סוּס, ṣūṣ, and (2) ἵππος, hı́ppoš. (3) The word פרשׁ, pārāsh, ?horseman,? occurs often, and in several cases is translated ?horse? or ?warhorse? (Isa_28:28; Eze_27:14; Joe_2:4 the Revised Version, margin); also in 2 Sam 16, where the ?horsemen? of English Versions of the Bible is בּעלי הפרשׁים, ba‛ălē ha-pārāshı̄m, ?owners of horses?; compare Arabic fâris, ?horseman,? and faras, ?horse?. (4) The feminine form סוּסה, ṣūṣāh, occurs in Son_1:9, and is rendered as follows: Septuagint ἡ ἵππος, hē hı́ppos; Vulgate (Jerome's Latin Bible, 390-405 ad) equitatum; the King James Version ?company of horses,? the Revised Version (British and American) ?steed.? It is not clear why English Versions of the Bible does not have ?mare.? (5) The word אבּרים, 'abbirı̄m, ?strong ones,? is used for horses in Jdg_5:22; Jer_8:16; Jer_47:3; Jer_50:11 (the King James Version ?bulls?). In Psa_22:12 the same word is translated ?strong bulls? (of Bashan). (6) For רכשׁ, rekhesh (compare Arabic rakaḍ, ?to run?), in 1Ki_4:28; Est_8:10, Est_8:14; Mic_1:13, the Revised Version (British and American) has ?swift steeds,? while the King James Version gives ?dromedaries? in 1 Ki and ?mules? in Est. (7) For כּרכּרות, kirkārōth (Isa_66:20), the King James Version and the English Revised Version have ?swift beasts?; the English Revised Version margin and the American Standard Revised Version ?dromedaries?; Septuagint σκιάδια, skiádia, perhaps ?covered carriages.? In Est_8:10, Est_8:14 we find the doubtful words (8) אחשׁתּרנים, 'ăḥashterānı̄m, and (9) בּני הרמּכים, benē hā-rammākhı̄m, which have been variously translated. the King James Version has respectively ?camels? and ?young dromedaries,? the Revised Version (British and American) ?used in the king's service? and ?bred of the stud,? the Revised Version margin ?mules? and ?young dromedaries.? See CAMEL.
2. Origin
The Hebrew and Egyptian names for the horse are alike akin to the Assyrian. The Jews may have obtained horses from Egypt (Deu_17:16), but the Canaanites before them had horses (Jos_17:16), and in looking toward the Northeast for the origin of the horse, philologists are in agreement with zoologists who consider that the plains of Central Asia, and also of Europe, were the original home of the horse. At least one species of wild horse is still found in Central Asia.
3. Uses
The horses of the Bible are almost exclusively war-horses, or at least the property of kings and not of the common people. A doubtful reference to the use of horses in threshing grain is found in Isa_28:28. Horses are among the property which the Egyptians gave to Joseph in exchange for grain (Gen_47:17). In Deu_17:16 it is enjoined that the king ?shall not multiply horses to himself, nor cause the people to return to Egypt, to the end that he may multiply horses.? This and other injunctions failed to prevent the Jews from borrowing from the neighboring civilizations their customs, idolatries, and vices. Solomon's horses are enumerated in 1 Ki 4, and the se‛ı̄rı̄m and tebhen of 1Ki_4:28 (1Ki_5:8) are identical with the sha‛ı̂r (?barley?) and tibn (?straw?) with which the arab feeds his horse today. In war, horses were ridden and were driven in chariots (Exo_14:9; Jos_11:4; 2Sa_15:1, etc.).
4. Figurative and Descriptive
The horse is referred to figuratively chiefly in Zechariah and Revelation. A chariot and horses of fire take Elijah up to heaven (2Ki_2:11 f). In Psa_20:7; Psa_33:17; and Psa_76:6, the great strength of the horse is recalled as a reminder of the greater strength of God. In Jam_3:3, the small bridle by which the horse can be managed is compared to the tongue (compare Psa_32:9). In Job_39:19-25 we have a magnificent description of a spirited war-horse.
International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
PRINTER 1915.
Horse (Gen_47:17; Gen_49:17; Exo_14:9; Exo_14:23, and in many other places; Jam_3:3; Rev_6:2, etc.). It appears to be substantiated that the horse was derived from High Asia, and was not indigenous in Arabia, Syria, or Egypt. They are not mentioned among the presents which Pharaoh bestowed upon Abraham, and occur in Scripture for the first time when the patriarch Joseph receives them from the Egyptians in exchange for bread (Gen_47:17), evidently as valuable animals, disposed of singly, and not in droves or flocks, like cattle and asses. They were still sufficiently important to be expressly mentioned in the funeral procession which accompanied the body of Jacob to his sepulcher in Canaan (Gen_50:9); and for centuries after it does not appear that, under the domestic management of the Egyptians, unless the murrain had greatly reduced them, horses had multiplied as they would have done in a land more congenial to their habits, since only six hundred chariots appear to have pursued Israel (Exo_14:7); even admitting that there were other chariots and horsemen not included in that number. In the sculptured battle-scenes, which are believed to represent victories of Sesostris, or of Thothmes II and III, over nations of Central Asia, it is evident that the enemy's armies, as well as the foreign allies of Egypt, are abundantly supplied with horses, both for chariots and for riders; and in triumphal processions they are shown as presents or tribute, proving that they were portions of the national wealth of conquered states sufficiently valuable to be prized in Egypt. At a later period the books of Deuteronomy (Deu_17:10, for the future kings of Israel are forbidden to possess many) and Joshua (Jos_11:4) furnish similar evidence of abundance of horses in the plains of Syria; and in Job occurs a description of a perfect war-horse couched in the bold figurative language of inspiration, such as remains unequalled by any other poet, ancient or modern. Though the Israelites had chariots and horsemen opposed to them in the plain country from their first entrance into the land of promise?as in Jdg_4:15, where we find Sisera with his chariots of war defeated at the foot of Mount Tabor?yet not being intended to make military conquests beyond the mountain basin and the adjacent territory assigned them, they long remained without cavalry or chariots themselves (Deu_17:16; 2Sa_8:4): they obeyed the divine injunction to abstain from possessing horses, and, to the time of David, hamstrung such as they captured from their enemies. It appears, however, that a small cavalry force was raised by him; and as in all the military operations of Western Asia, there was a tendency to increase the mounted force and neglect the infantry, on the full establishment of royalty, when the Hebrew government acquired a more political structure, the reign of Solomon displayed a military system which embraced a regular body of horse and of chariots, evidently become the more necessary, since the limits of his sway were extended to the shores of the Arabian Gulf, and far into the Syrian desert (1Ki_10:26). Solomon likewise acted with commercial views in the monopolizing spirit which Eastern sovereigns have been prone to exercise in all ages. He bought chariots and teams of horses in Egypt, and probably in Armenia, 'in all lands,' and had them brought into his dominions in strings, in the same manner as horses are still conducted to and from fairs: for this interpretation, as offered by Mr. Charles Taylor, appears to convey the natural and true meaning of the text, and not 'strings of linen yarn,' which here seem to be out of place (2Ch_1:16-17; 2Ch_9:25; 2Ch_9:28).
The Tyrians purchased these objects from Solomon; but in the time of Ezekiel they imported horses themselves from Togarmah or Armenia. On returning from the Babylonish captivity, the common possession of horses in Palestine was no longer opposed; for Nehemiah numbers seven hundred and thirty six belonging to the liberated Hebrews (Neh_7:68).
All the great original varieties or races of horses were then known in Western Asia, and the Hebrew prophets themselves have not infrequented distinguished the nations they had in view, by means of the predominant colors of their horses, and that more correctly than commentators have surmised. Taking Bochart's application of the Hebrew names, the bay race emphatically belonged to Egypt and Arabia Felix; the white to the regions above the Euxine Sea, Asia Minor, and northern High Asia; the dun, or cream-colored, to the Medes; the spotted piebald, or skewbald, to the Macedonians, the Parthians, and later Tahtars; and the black to the Romans; but the chesnuts do not belong to any known historical race (Zec_1:8; Zec_6:2).
Bay or red horses occur most frequently on Egyptian painted monuments, this being the primitive color of the Arabian stock; but white horses are also common, and in a few instances black, the last probably only to relieve the paler color of the one beside it in the picture. There is also, we understand, an instance of a spotted pair, tending to show that the valley of the Nile was originally supplied with horses from foreign sources and distinct regions, as indeed the tribute pictures further attest. The spotted, if not real, but painted horses, indicate the antiquity of a practice still in vogue; for staining the hair of riding animals with spots of various colors, and dyeing their limbs and tails crimson, is a practice of common occurrence in the East [ASS].
On the natural history of the horse there is no occasion to enter in this place; but it may be proper to notice that the riding bridle was long a mere slip-knot, passed round the under jaw into the mouth, thus furnishing only one rein; and that a rod was commonly added to guide the animal with more facility. The bridle, however, and the reins of chariot-horses were, at a very early age, exceedingly perfect; as the monuments of Egypt, Etruria, and Greece, amply prove. Saddles were not used, the rider sitting on the bare back, or using a cloth or mat girded on the animal. The Romans, no doubt copying the Persian Cataphract?, first used pad-saddles, and from the northern nations adopted stimuli or spurs. Stirrups were unknown. Avicenna first mentions the rikiab, or Arabian stirrup, perhaps the most ancient; although in the tumuli of Central Asia, Tahtar horse skeletons, bridles, and stirrup-saddles, have been found along with idols; which proves the tombs to be more ancient than the introduction of Islam. With regard to horseshoeing, Bishop Lowth and Bracy Clark were mistaken in believing that the Roman horse or mule shoe was fastened on without nails driven through the horny part of the hoof, as at present. A contrary conclusion may be inferred from several passages in the poets: and the figure of a horse in the Pompeii battle mosaic, shod in the same manner as is now the practice, leaves little doubt on the question.
The Popular Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature
by John Kitto.
Psa_32:9 (a) This is a warning that the believer should use good judgment, think for himself, and not be just as an animal that must be guided by another.
Psa_33:17 (b) This is a type of any human resource in which people trust for deliverance instead of in the living GOD.
Jer_12:5 (c) This is a peculiar type - the footmen represent ordinary Christians living ordinary Christian lives. They make the unsaved man weary and he wishes to get away from their influence and company. The horses represent Christians who have come to full growth even perhaps those who have already been taken to Heaven. If the weak Christian wearies the sinner, how much more will those Christians who have been made like CHRIST and have been brought into perfect manhood and full stature for GOD? The sinner would not be able to stand their presence at all.
The horses in Zechariah 1 and 6 probably represent great movements wrought by GOD in dealing with men.
Zec_6:2 (b) The red horse - a type of the destructive power of war. (See also Rev_6:4).
Zec_6:3 (b) The black horse - represents world-wide famine which naturally follows great wars both international and internal. (See also Rev_6:5). Each person receives his food by weight.
Zec_6:3 (b) Bay horse - probably represents the scourge of pestilence and disease which follows upon the famine that follows the war. (See also Rev_6:8).
Zec_6:3 (b) The white horse - probably represents a man-made peace which will be forced upon the world by the antichrist under the guise of religion and righteousness. It will be a false peace which will not stand. (See also Rev_6:2).
Rev_19:11 (b) The white horse - typical of the great power which the Lord JESUS will exhibit in righteousness and justice when He comes forth from Heaven as the Almighty Conqueror.
Wilson's Dictionary of Bible Types
press 1957.
Horse
סוּס,sias, ἵππος, of frequent occurrence; other less usual or proper terms and epithets are סוּסָהּ, susah', a mnare, rendered company of horses, i.e. cavalry, Song of Solomon 1, 9; פָּרָשׁ, parash', Ahorse for riding, horseman, of frequent occurrence; רֶכֶבor רָכִב, re'keb or Raakab,' a beast of burden, also a chariot, charioteer, or chariot-horse, especially a team, variously rendered, and of frequent occurrence; אִבַּיר, abbir', strong, as an epithet of the horse, only in Jeremiah, as Jer_8:16; Jer_47:3; Jeremiah 1, 11; רֶכֶּשׁ, re'kesh, a horse of a nobler breed, a courser, rendered dromedary in 1Ki_4:8; mule, Est_8:10; Est_8:14; swift beast, Mic_1:13; רִמָּךְ, ramm-ak', a mare, rendered dromedary, Est_8:10. The origin of the first two of these terms is not satisfactorily made out; Pott (E'tym. Forsch. 1, 60) connects them respectively with Susa and Pares, or Persia, as the countries whence the horse was derived; and it is worthy of remark that sus was also employed in Egypt for a marme, showing that it was a foreign term there, if not also in Palestine. There is a marked distinction between the sus and the parash; the former were horses for driving in the war-chariot, of a heavy build, the latter were for riding, and particularly for cavalry. This distinction is not observed in the A.V. from the circumstance that parash also signifies horseman; the correct sense is essential in the following passages 1Ki_4:26, forty- thousand chariot-horses and twelve thousand cavalry-horses; Eze_27:14, driving-horses and riding-horses; Joe_2:4, as riding-horses, so shall they run; and Isa_21:7, a train of horses in couples.
The most striking feature in the Biblical notices of the horse is the exclusive application of it to warlike operations; in no instance is that useful animal employed for the purposes of ordinary locomotion or agriculture, if we except Isa_28:28, where we learn that horses (A.V. horsemen) were employed in threshing, not, however, in that case put in the gears, but simply driven about wildly over the strewed grain. This remark will be found to be borne out by the historical passages hereafter quoted, but it is equally striking in the poetical parts of Scripture. The animated description of the horse in Job_39:19-25, applies solely to the war-horse; the mane streaming in the breeze (A.V. thunder) which clothes his neck; his lofty bounds as a grasshopper; his hoofs digging in the valley with excitement; his terrible snorting are brought before us, and his ardor for the strife. The following is a close rendering of this fine description of the war-horse: Canst thou give to the horse prowess?
Canst thou clothe his neck [with] a shuddering [mane]? Canst thou make him prance like the locust? The grandeur of his snorting [is] formidable. They will [eagerly] paw in the valley, And [each] rejoice in vigor; He will go forth to meet [the] weapon: He will laugh at dread, Nor will he cower, Nor' retreat from before [the] sword: Against him may rattle quiver, Flaming lance or dart [in vain]. With prancing and restlessness he will absorb [the earth [by fleetness]; Nor can he stand still when the sound of the trumpet [is heard]: As oft [as the] trumpet [sounds], he will say, Aha! For from afar he can scent [the battle], The thunder of the captains and shouting.
So, again, the bride advances with her charms to an immediate conquest as a company of horses in Pharaoh's chariots (Son_1:9); and when the prophet Zechariah wishes to convey the idea of perfect peace, he represents the horse, no more mixing in the fray as before (Song of Solomon 9:10), but bearing on his bell (which was intended to strike terror into the foe) the peaceable inscription, Holiness unto the Lord (Song of Solomon 14:20). Lastly, the characteristic of the horse is not so much his speed or his utility, but his strength (Psa_33:17; Psa_147:10), as shown in the special application of the term abbir (אִבַּיר), i.e. strong, as an equivalent for a horse (Jer_8:16; Jer_47:3; Jeremiah 1, 11). Hence the horse becomes the symbol of war, or of a campaign (Zec_10:3; comp. Psa_45:5; Deu_32:13; Psa_56:12; Isa_58:14, where horsemanship is made typical of conquest), especially of speedy conquest (Jer_4:13), or rapid execution of any purpose (Revelation 6).
The Hebrews in the patriarchal age, as a pastoral race, did not stand in need of the services of the horse, and for a long period after their settlement in Canaan they dispensed with it, partly in consequence of the hilly nature of the country, which only admitted of the use of chariots in certain localities (Jdg_1:19), and partly in consequence of the prohibition in Deu_17:16, which would be held to apply at all periods. Accordingly they hamstrung the horses of the Canaanites (Jos_11:6; Jos_11:9). David first established a force of cavalry and chariots after the defeat of Hadadezer (2Sa_8:4), when he reserved a hundred chariots, and, as we may infer, all the horses; for the rendering houghed all the chariot-horses is manifestly incorrect. Shortly after this Absalom was possessed of some (2Sa_15:1). But the great supply of horses was subsequently effected by Solomon through his connection with Egypt; he is reported to have had 40,000 stalls of horses for his chariots, and 12,000 cavalry-horses (1Ki_4:26), and it is worthy of notice that these forces are mentioned parenthetically to account for the great security of life and property noticed in the preceding verse.
There is probably an error in the former of these numbers; for the number of chariots is given in 1Ki_10:26; 2Ch_1:14, as 1400, and consequently, if we allow three horses for each chariot, two in use and one as a reserve, as was usual in some countries (Xenoph. Cyrop. 6, 1, § 27), the number required would be 4200, or, in round numbers, 4000, which is probably the correct reading. Solomon also established a very active trade in horses, which were brought by dealers out of Egypt, and resold at a profit to the Hittites, who lived between Palestine and the Euphrates. The passage in which this commerce is described (1Ki_10:28-29) is unfortunately obscure; the tenor of 1Ki_10:28 seems to be that there was a regularly established traffic, the Egyptians bringing the horses to a mart in the south of Palestine, and handing them over to the Hebrew dealers at a fixed tariff. The price of a horse was fixed at 150 shekels of silver, and that of a chariot at 600; in the latter we must include the horses (for an Egyptian war-chariot was of no great value), and conceive, as before, that three horses accompanied each chariot, leaving the value of the chariot itself at 150 shekels. In addition to this source of supply, Solomon received horses by way of tribute (1Ki_10:25). He bought chariots and teams of horses in Egypt (1Ki_10:28), and probably in Armenia, in all lands and had them brought into his dominions in strings, in the same manner as horses are still conducted to and from fairs for this interpretation, as offered by professor Paxton, appears to convey the natural and true meaning of the text; and not strings of linen yam, which here seem to be out of place (2Ch_1:16-17; 2Ch_9:25; 2Ch_9:28). The cavalry force was maintained by the succeeding kings, and frequent notices occur both of riding-horses and chariots (2Ki_9:21; 2Ki_9:33; 2Ki_11:16), and particularly of war-chariots (1Ki_22:4; 2Ki_3:7; Isa_2:7). The force seems to have failed in the time of Hezekiah (2Ki_18:23) in Judah, as it had previously in Israel under Jehoahaz (2Ki_13:7). Josiah took away the horses, which the kings of Judah, his predecessors, had consecrated to the sun (2Ki_23:11). SEE SUN. The number of horses belonging to the Jews on their return, from Babylon is stated at 736 (Neh_7:68).
In the countries adjacent to Palestine the use of the horse was much more frequent. It was introduced into Egypt probably by the Hyksos, as it is not represented on the monuments before the 18th dynasty (Wilkinson, 1, 386, abridgm.). Yet these animals are not mentioned among the presents which Abraham received from Pharaoh (Gen_12:16), and occur first in Scripture among the valuables paid by the Egyptians to Joseph in exchange for grain (Gen_47:17). They were still sufficiently important to be expressly mentioned in the funeral procession, which accompanied the body of Jacob to his sepulcher in Canaan (Gen_1:9). At the period of the Exodus horses were abundant in Egypt (Exo_9:3; Exo_14:9; Exo_14:23; Deu_17:17), and subsequently, as we have already seen, they were able to supply the nations of Western Asia. The Tyrians purchased these animals from Solomon, and in the time of Ezekiel imported horses themselves from Togarmah or Armenia (Eze_27:14). The Jewish kings sought the assistance of the Egyptians against the Assyrians in this respect (Isa_31:1; Isa_36:8; Eze_17:15). The Canaanites were possessed of them (Dent. 20:1; Jos_11:4; Jdg_4:3; Jdg_5:22; Jdg_5:28), and likewise the Syrians (2Sa_8:4; 1Ki_20:1; 2Ki_6:14; 2Ki_7:7; 2Ki_7:10) notices, which are confirmed by the pictorial representations on Egyptian monuments (Wilkinson, 1, 393, 397, 401), and by the Assyrian inscriptions relating to Syrian expeditions. But the cavalry of the Assyrians themselves and other Eastern nations was regarded as most formidable; the horses themselves were highly bred, as the Assyrian sculptures still testify, and fully merited the praise bestowed on them by Habakkuk (Hab_1:8), swifter than leopards, and more fierce than the evening wolves; their riders clothed in blue, captains and rulers, all of them desirable young men (Eze_23:6), armed with the bright sword and glittering spear (Nah_3:3), made a deep impression on the Jews, who, plainly clad, went on foot; as also did their regular array as they proceeded in couples, contrasting with the disorderly troops of asses and camels which followed with the baggage (Isa_21:7, rekeb in this passage signifying rather a train than a single chariot). The number employed by the Eastern potentates was very great, Holofernes possessing not less than 12.000 (Jdt_2:15). At a later period we have frequent notices of the cavalry of the Graeco-Syrian monarchs (1Ma_1:18; 1Ma_3:39, etc.).
The above notices of the use of the horse by the ancient Egyptians derives abundant illustration from their monuments. In the sculptured battle- scenes, which are believed to represent victories of Sesostris, or of Thothmes II and III, over nations of Central Asia, it is evident that the enemy's armies, as well as the foreign allies of Egypt, were abundantly supplied with horses, both for chariots and for riders; and in triumphal processions they are shown as presents or tribute-proving that they were portions of the national wealth of conquered states sufficiently valuable to be prized in Egypt. That the Assyrians and Babylonians were equally well supplied with this valuable animal is likewise attested by the martial scenes depicted on the sculptures discovered among the ruins of Nineveh and the vicinity. They are represented in almost every variety of position and employment, such as the chase, and for other purposes of pleasure; but chiefly in war, for which the Assyrians used them both with the saddle and in the: chariot. According to Mr. Layard (Nineveh, 1st series, 1, 275 sq.), the horses of the Assyrians were well formed and of noble blood, as appears from the figures no doubt faithfully copied on the sculptures. Cavalry formed an important part of the Assyrian army. The horsemen carried the bow and spear, and wore coats of mail, high greaves, and the pointed helmet. Their horses also were covered, and even, it would seem, with a kind of leather armor, from the head to the tail, to protect them from the arrows of the enemy. It consisted of several pieces fastened together by buttons or loops. Over it was thrown an ornamented saddlecloth, or a leopard's skin, upon which the rider sat. Under the head of the horse was hung a bell (comp. Zec_14:20) or a tassel. The reins appear to have been tightened round the neck of the horse by a sliding button, and then dropped as the war Tior was engaged in fight. Between the horse's ears was an arched crest, and the different parts of the harness were richly embroidered, and ornamented with rosettes (Layard's Nin. 2nd ser. p. 456). SEE HORSEMAN.
With regard to the trappings and management of the horse among the Hebrews and adjoining nations, we (have little information; the bridle (resen) was placed over the horse's nose (Isa_30:28), and a bit or curb (metheg) is also noticed (2Ki_19:28; Psa_32:9; Pro_26:3; Isa_37:29; in the A.V. it is incorrectly given bridle, with the exception of Psalms 32). The harness of the Assyrian horses was profusely decorated, the bits being gilt (1Es_3:6), and the bridles adorned with tassels; on the neck was a collar terminating in a bell, as described by Zechariah (Zec_14:20). Saddles were not used until a late period; only one is represented on the Assyrian sculptures (Layard, 2, 357). The horses were not shod, and therefore hoofs as hard as flint (Isa_5:28) were regarded as a great merit. The chariot- horses were covered with embroidered trappings-the precious clothes manufactured at Dedan (Eze_27:20) these were fastened by straps and buckles, and to this perhaps reference is made in Pro_30:31, in the term zarzir, one girded about the loins (A.V. greyhound). Thus adorned, Mordecai rode in state through the streets of Shushan (Est_6:9). White horses were more particularly appropriate to such occasions as being significant of victory (Rev_6:2; Rev_19:11; Rev_19:14).
Horses and chariots were used also in idolatrous processions, as noticed in regard to the sun (2Ki_23:11). As to kinds of harness, etc., by means of which the services of the horse were anciently made available by other nations, it may be well to notice that the riding bridle was long a mere slip-knot, passed round the under jaw into the mouth, thus furnishing only one rein; and that a rod was commonly added to guide the animal with more facility. The bridle, however, and the reins of chariot-horses were, at a very early age, exceedingly perfect, as the monuments of Egypt, Etruria, and Greece amply prove. Saddles were not used, the rider sitting on the bare back, or using a cloth or mat girded on the animal. The Romans, no doubt copying the Persian Cataphractae, first used pad saddles, and from the northern nations adopted stimuli or spurs. Stirrups were unknown. Avicenna first mentions the rikiab, or Arabian stirrup, perhaps the most ancient; although in the tumuli of Central Asia, Tahtar horse skeletons, bridles, and stirrup saddles have been found along with idols, which proves the tombs to be more ancient than the introduction of Islam. With regard to horseshoeing, bishop Lowth and Bracy Clark were mistaken in believing that the Roman horse or mule shoe was fastened on without nails driven through the horny part of the hoof, as at present. A contrary conclusion may be inferred from several passages in the poets; and the figure of a horse in the Pompeii battle mosaic, shod in the same manner as is now the practice, leaves little doubt on the question. The principal use of horses anciently was for the chariot, especially in war; to this they were attached by means of a pole and yoke like oxen, a practice which continued down to the times of the Romans. (See Bible Animals, p. 248 sq.) SEE CHARIOT; SEE BRIDLE.
It appears that the horse was derived from High Asia, and was not indigenous in Arabia, Syria, or Egypt (Jardine's Naturalist's Library, vol. 12), where his congeners the zebra, quagga, and ass are still found in primitive freedom, although the horse is found in all parts of the world free, it is true, but only as a wild descendant of a once domesticated stock. (See Schlieben, Die Pferde des Alterthums, Neuwied. 1867; Abd el Kader, Horses of the Desert, trans. by Daumas, London, 1863.) All the great original varieties or races of horses were then known in Western Asia, and the Hebrew prophets themselves have not infrequently distinguished the nations they had in view by means of the predominant colors of their horses, and that more correctly than commentators have surmised. Taking Bochart's application (Hieroz. 1, 31 sq.) of the Hebrew names, the bay race, אָדוֹם, adom., emphatically belonged to Egypt and Arabia Felix; the white, לְבֹנַים, lebonim, to the regions above the Euxine Sea, Asia Minor, and northern High Asia; the dun, or cream-colored, שְׂרֻקַּים, serukkim, to the Medes; the spotted piebald, or skewbald, בְּרֻדַּים, beruddim, to the Macedonians, the Parthians, and later Tahtars; and the black, שָׁחוֹרַים, shachorim, to the Romans; but the chestnut, אִמוֹוֹ,am, otz, does not belong to any known historical race (Zec_1:8; Zec_6:2). SEE ASS; SEE MULE; SEE DROMEDARY. Bay or red horses occur most frequently on Egyptian painted monuments, this being the primitive color of the Arabian stock, but white horses are also common, and, in a few instances, black the last probably only to relieve the paler color of the one beside it in the picture. There is also, we understand, an instance of a spotted pair, tending to show that the valley of the Nile was originally supplied with horses from foreign sources and distinct regions, as, indeed, the tribute pictures further attest. The spotted, if not real, but painted horses, indicate the antiquity of a practice still in vogue; for staining the hair of riding animals with spots of various colors, and dyeing their limbs and tails crimson, is a practice of common occurrence in the East. These colors are typical, in some passages of Scripture, of various qualities, e.g. the white of victory, the black of defeat and calamity, the red of bloodshed, etc. (compare Revelation 6). SEE COLOR.
CYCLOPEDIA OF BIBLICAL, THEOLOGICAL AND ECCLESIASTICAL
press 1895.
E. W. G. Masterman.
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible
Edited by James Hastings, D.D. Published in 1909
In Scripture used for war-like purposes, not agriculture (except in treading out grain for threshing, Isa_28:28, where for "horsemen" translated "horses".) Job's magnificent description refers to the war horse (Isa_39:19-25), "hast thou clothed his neck with thunder?" i.e. with the power of inspiring terror. Rather "with majesty" (Umbreit), "with quivering mane" (Maurer). The Greek connection between mane (fobee) and terror (fobos) favors A.V. which is more poetic. "Canst thou make him afraid (rather 'make him spring') as a grasshopper?" So in Joe_2:4 war horses are compared to locusts. Their heads are so like that the Italian for "locust" is cavaletta, "little horse." "The glory of his nostrils is terrible: he paweth in the valley and rejoiceth in strength, he goeth on," etc.; "he swalloweth the ground with fierceness," i.e. draws it in fierce impatience toward him with his hoof, as if he would "swallow" it.
"Neither believeth he (for joy) that it is the sound of the trumpet," rather "he will not stand still at the sound." "He saith among the trumpets, Ha, ha!" his mettlesome neighing expressing his eagerness for battle, which "he smelleth," snuffeth, i.e. discerneth, "the thunder (i.e. thundering voice) of the captains." (See CHARIOT.) The donkey is the emblem of peace. The bride is compared to "a company of horses in Pharaoh's chariots" (Son_1:9), namely, in ardor and beauty (Son_1:4, "run"; Son_1:5, "comely"), and in forming "a company" militant, orderly, and numerous (Rev_19:7; Rev_19:14). The qualities which seemed preeminent in the enemy Pharaoh's hosts at the Red Sea really belonged to Israel. Maurer translated "I compare thee to my mare in chariots of (i.e. received from) Pharaoh," but the plural "chariots" requires the collective sense "a company of horses."
The "cutting off of the horse from Jerusalem" prophetically symbolizes the cessation of war (Zec_9:10). Not the horse's speed or utility but his "strength" is his characteristic in Scripture (Psa_33:17). Two names are used in Hebrew, both Persian in origin: sus from Susa, and parash from Pares. The sus was of stronger make, used for the war chariot; the parash more for riding. Perhaps in Exo_14:9 "horsemen" mean "chariot riders." Certainly no Egyptian monument represents horsemen. Translated in 1Ki_4:26, "forty (rather 'four,' a copyist's error, as 2Ch_9:25 proves. Also 1400 chariots suit 4000 horses, two horses for each chariot and a reserve horse: 2Ch_1:14; 1Ki_10:26) thousand chariot horses and twelve thousand riding (i.e. cavalry) horses"; Eze_27:14, "with (chariot) horses and riding horses" (KJV "horsemen".)
Isa_21:7, "a chariot with a couple of horsemen"; rather "a cavalcade of horsemen riding in pairs." In 1Ki_4:28; Est_8:14; Mic_1:13, rekesh "dromedary"; rather "a courser," a "racehorse," for such purposes as the royal post. In 1Ki_10:28-29, the sense seems that the Egyptians regularly brought horses to a mart in S. Palestine (Septuagint and Vulgate name the mart in their translation), of the Hebrew Koa. In A. V. Mi-Kveh is translated "linen yarn") and handed them to the king's dealers at a fixed price, 150 shekels for one horse, 600 for a chariot, including its two draught horses and one reserve horse. In Gen_12:15 horses are not mentioned among the possessions which Abram acquired during his sojourn in Egypt. But in Gen_47:17 they stand foremost among the Egyptians' possessions. In later times, the greater contact of Egypt with Canaanite and Arab nomads' accounts for the introduction of horses.
The camel, one of Abram's possessions in Egypt, is not mentioned in Joseph's time nor on the Egyptian monuments. Their early possession of the desert of Sinai makes it certain they knew and must have used the camel there, "the ship of the desert," but they avoid mentioning it as being unclean. Saddles were not used until a late period. Horses' hoofs hard "as flint" were a good point in days when shoeing was unknown (Isa_5:28). White horses were emblematic of victory (Rev_6:2; Rev_19:11; Rev_19:14). Horses were consecrated to the sun, since that luminary was supposed to drive a fiery chariot through the sky (2Ki_23:11). They were driven in procession to meet the rising sun.
Fausset's Bible Dictionary
By Andrew Robert Fausset, co-Author of Jamieson, Fausset and Brown's 1888.
Horse. The most striking feature in the biblical notices of the horse is the exclusive application of it to warlike operations; in no instance is that useful animal employed for the purposes of ordinary locomotion or agriculture, if we except Isa_28:28. The animated description of the horse in Job_39:19-25 applies solely to the war-horse.
The Hebrews in the patriarchal age, as a pastoral race, did not stand in need of the services of the horse, and for a long period after their settlement in Canaan, they dispensed with it, partly in consequence of the hilly nature of the country, which only admitted of the use of chariots in certain localities, Jdg_1:19, and partly in consequence to the prohibition in Deu_17:16 which would be held to apply at all periods.
David first established a force of cavalry and chariots, 2Sa_8:4, but the great supply of horses was subsequently effected by Solomon through his connection with Egypt. 1Ki_4:26. Solomon also established a very active trade in horses, which were brought by dealers out of Egypt and resold, at a profit, to the Hittites.
With regard to the trappings and management of the horse, we have little information. The bridle was placed over the horse's nose, Isa_30:28, and a bit or curb is also mentioned. 2Ki_19:28; Psa_32:9; Pro_26:3; Isa_37:29. In the Authorized Version, it is incorrectly given "bridle," with the exception of Psa_32:1. Saddles were not used until a late period. The horses were not shod, and, therefore, hoofs as hard "as flint," Isa_5:28, were regarded as a great merit. The chariot-horses were covered with embroidered trappings Eze_27:20. Horses and chariots were used also in idolatrous processions, as noticed in regard to the sun. 2Ki_23:11.
Smith's Bible Dictionary
By Dr. William Smith.Published in 1863
סוס . Horses were very rare among the Hebrews in the early ages. The patriarchs had none; and after the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, God expressly forbade their ruler to procure them: He shall not multiply horses to himself, nor cause the people to return to Egypt, to the end that he should multiply horses: forasmuch as the Lord hath said, Ye shall henceforth return no more that way, Deu_17:16. As horses appear to have been generally furnished by Egypt, God prohibits these,
1. Lest there should be such commerce with Egypt as might lead to idolatry.
2. Lest the people might depend on a well appointed cavalry, as a means of security, and so cease from trusting in the promised aid and protection of Jehovah.
3. That they might not be tempted to extend their dominion by means of cavalry, and so get scattered among the surrounding idolatrous nations, and thus cease in process of time, to be that distinct and separate people which God intended they should be, and without which the prophecies relative to the Messiah could not be known to have their due and full accomplishment. In the time of the Judges we find horses and war chariots among the Canaanites, but still the Israelites had none; and hence they were generally too timid to venture down into the plains, confining their conquests to the mountainous parts of the country. In the reign of Saul, it would appear, that horse breeding had not yet been introduced into Arabia; for, in a war with some of the Arabian nations, the Israelites got plunder in camels, sheep, and asses, but no horses. David's enemies brought against him a strong force of cavalry into the field; and in the book of Psalms the horse commonly appears only on the side of the enemies of the people of God; and so entirely unaccustomed to the management of this animal had the Israelites still continued, that, after a battle, in which they took a considerable body of cavalry prisoners, 2Sa_8:4, David caused most of the horses to be cut down, because he did not know what use to make of them. Solomon was the first who established a cavalry force.
Under these circumstances, it is not wonderful that the Mosaic law should take no notice of an animal which we hold in such high estimation. To Moses, educated as he was in Egypt, and, with his people, at last chased out by Pharaoh's cavalry, the use of the horse for war and for travelling was well known; but as it was his object to establish a nation of husbandmen, and not of soldiers for the conquest of foreign lands, and as Palestine, from its situation, required not the defence of cavalry, he might very well decline introducing among his people the yet unusual art of horse breeding. Solomon, having married a daughter of Pharaoh, procured a breed of horses from Egypt; and so greatly did he multiply them, that he had four hundred stables, forty thousand stalls, and twelve thousand horsemen, 1Ki_4:26; 2Ch_9:25. It seems that the Egyptian horses were in high repute, and were much used in war. When the Israelites were disposed to place too implicit confidence in the assistance of cavalry, the prophet remonstrated in these terms: The Egyptians are men, and not God, and their horses are flesh, not spirit,
Isa_31:3.
Biblical and Theological Dictionary by Richard Watson
PRINTER 1849.
hôrs:
1. Names
The common names are (1) סוּס, ṣūṣ, and (2) ἵππος, hı́ppoš. (3) The word פרשׁ, pārāsh, ?horseman,? occurs often, and in several cases is translated ?horse? or ?warhorse? (Isa_28:28; Eze_27:14; Joe_2:4 the Revised Version, margin); also in 2 Sam 16, where the ?horsemen? of English Versions of the Bible is בּעלי הפרשׁים, ba‛ălē ha-pārāshı̄m, ?owners of horses?; compare Arabic fâris, ?horseman,? and faras, ?horse?. (4) The feminine form סוּסה, ṣūṣāh, occurs in Son_1:9, and is rendered as follows: Septuagint ἡ ἵππος, hē hı́ppos; Vulgate (Jerome's Latin Bible, 390-405 ad) equitatum; the King James Version ?company of horses,? the Revised Version (British and American) ?steed.? It is not clear why English Versions of the Bible does not have ?mare.? (5) The word אבּרים, 'abbirı̄m, ?strong ones,? is used for horses in Jdg_5:22; Jer_8:16; Jer_47:3; Jer_50:11 (the King James Version ?bulls?). In Psa_22:12 the same word is translated ?strong bulls? (of Bashan). (6) For רכשׁ, rekhesh (compare Arabic rakaḍ, ?to run?), in 1Ki_4:28; Est_8:10, Est_8:14; Mic_1:13, the Revised Version (British and American) has ?swift steeds,? while the King James Version gives ?dromedaries? in 1 Ki and ?mules? in Est. (7) For כּרכּרות, kirkārōth (Isa_66:20), the King James Version and the English Revised Version have ?swift beasts?; the English Revised Version margin and the American Standard Revised Version ?dromedaries?; Septuagint σκιάδια, skiádia, perhaps ?covered carriages.? In Est_8:10, Est_8:14 we find the doubtful words (8) אחשׁתּרנים, 'ăḥashterānı̄m, and (9) בּני הרמּכים, benē hā-rammākhı̄m, which have been variously translated. the King James Version has respectively ?camels? and ?young dromedaries,? the Revised Version (British and American) ?used in the king's service? and ?bred of the stud,? the Revised Version margin ?mules? and ?young dromedaries.? See CAMEL.
2. Origin
The Hebrew and Egyptian names for the horse are alike akin to the Assyrian. The Jews may have obtained horses from Egypt (Deu_17:16), but the Canaanites before them had horses (Jos_17:16), and in looking toward the Northeast for the origin of the horse, philologists are in agreement with zoologists who consider that the plains of Central Asia, and also of Europe, were the original home of the horse. At least one species of wild horse is still found in Central Asia.
3. Uses
The horses of the Bible are almost exclusively war-horses, or at least the property of kings and not of the common people. A doubtful reference to the use of horses in threshing grain is found in Isa_28:28. Horses are among the property which the Egyptians gave to Joseph in exchange for grain (Gen_47:17). In Deu_17:16 it is enjoined that the king ?shall not multiply horses to himself, nor cause the people to return to Egypt, to the end that he may multiply horses.? This and other injunctions failed to prevent the Jews from borrowing from the neighboring civilizations their customs, idolatries, and vices. Solomon's horses are enumerated in 1 Ki 4, and the se‛ı̄rı̄m and tebhen of 1Ki_4:28 (1Ki_5:8) are identical with the sha‛ı̂r (?barley?) and tibn (?straw?) with which the arab feeds his horse today. In war, horses were ridden and were driven in chariots (Exo_14:9; Jos_11:4; 2Sa_15:1, etc.).
4. Figurative and Descriptive
The horse is referred to figuratively chiefly in Zechariah and Revelation. A chariot and horses of fire take Elijah up to heaven (2Ki_2:11 f). In Psa_20:7; Psa_33:17; and Psa_76:6, the great strength of the horse is recalled as a reminder of the greater strength of God. In Jam_3:3, the small bridle by which the horse can be managed is compared to the tongue (compare Psa_32:9). In Job_39:19-25 we have a magnificent description of a spirited war-horse.
International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
PRINTER 1915.
Horse (Gen_47:17; Gen_49:17; Exo_14:9; Exo_14:23, and in many other places; Jam_3:3; Rev_6:2, etc.). It appears to be substantiated that the horse was derived from High Asia, and was not indigenous in Arabia, Syria, or Egypt. They are not mentioned among the presents which Pharaoh bestowed upon Abraham, and occur in Scripture for the first time when the patriarch Joseph receives them from the Egyptians in exchange for bread (Gen_47:17), evidently as valuable animals, disposed of singly, and not in droves or flocks, like cattle and asses. They were still sufficiently important to be expressly mentioned in the funeral procession which accompanied the body of Jacob to his sepulcher in Canaan (Gen_50:9); and for centuries after it does not appear that, under the domestic management of the Egyptians, unless the murrain had greatly reduced them, horses had multiplied as they would have done in a land more congenial to their habits, since only six hundred chariots appear to have pursued Israel (Exo_14:7); even admitting that there were other chariots and horsemen not included in that number. In the sculptured battle-scenes, which are believed to represent victories of Sesostris, or of Thothmes II and III, over nations of Central Asia, it is evident that the enemy's armies, as well as the foreign allies of Egypt, are abundantly supplied with horses, both for chariots and for riders; and in triumphal processions they are shown as presents or tribute, proving that they were portions of the national wealth of conquered states sufficiently valuable to be prized in Egypt. At a later period the books of Deuteronomy (Deu_17:10, for the future kings of Israel are forbidden to possess many) and Joshua (Jos_11:4) furnish similar evidence of abundance of horses in the plains of Syria; and in Job occurs a description of a perfect war-horse couched in the bold figurative language of inspiration, such as remains unequalled by any other poet, ancient or modern. Though the Israelites had chariots and horsemen opposed to them in the plain country from their first entrance into the land of promise?as in Jdg_4:15, where we find Sisera with his chariots of war defeated at the foot of Mount Tabor?yet not being intended to make military conquests beyond the mountain basin and the adjacent territory assigned them, they long remained without cavalry or chariots themselves (Deu_17:16; 2Sa_8:4): they obeyed the divine injunction to abstain from possessing horses, and, to the time of David, hamstrung such as they captured from their enemies. It appears, however, that a small cavalry force was raised by him; and as in all the military operations of Western Asia, there was a tendency to increase the mounted force and neglect the infantry, on the full establishment of royalty, when the Hebrew government acquired a more political structure, the reign of Solomon displayed a military system which embraced a regular body of horse and of chariots, evidently become the more necessary, since the limits of his sway were extended to the shores of the Arabian Gulf, and far into the Syrian desert (1Ki_10:26). Solomon likewise acted with commercial views in the monopolizing spirit which Eastern sovereigns have been prone to exercise in all ages. He bought chariots and teams of horses in Egypt, and probably in Armenia, 'in all lands,' and had them brought into his dominions in strings, in the same manner as horses are still conducted to and from fairs: for this interpretation, as offered by Mr. Charles Taylor, appears to convey the natural and true meaning of the text, and not 'strings of linen yarn,' which here seem to be out of place (2Ch_1:16-17; 2Ch_9:25; 2Ch_9:28).
The Tyrians purchased these objects from Solomon; but in the time of Ezekiel they imported horses themselves from Togarmah or Armenia. On returning from the Babylonish captivity, the common possession of horses in Palestine was no longer opposed; for Nehemiah numbers seven hundred and thirty six belonging to the liberated Hebrews (Neh_7:68).
All the great original varieties or races of horses were then known in Western Asia, and the Hebrew prophets themselves have not infrequented distinguished the nations they had in view, by means of the predominant colors of their horses, and that more correctly than commentators have surmised. Taking Bochart's application of the Hebrew names, the bay race emphatically belonged to Egypt and Arabia Felix; the white to the regions above the Euxine Sea, Asia Minor, and northern High Asia; the dun, or cream-colored, to the Medes; the spotted piebald, or skewbald, to the Macedonians, the Parthians, and later Tahtars; and the black to the Romans; but the chesnuts do not belong to any known historical race (Zec_1:8; Zec_6:2).
Bay or red horses occur most frequently on Egyptian painted monuments, this being the primitive color of the Arabian stock; but white horses are also common, and in a few instances black, the last probably only to relieve the paler color of the one beside it in the picture. There is also, we understand, an instance of a spotted pair, tending to show that the valley of the Nile was originally supplied with horses from foreign sources and distinct regions, as indeed the tribute pictures further attest. The spotted, if not real, but painted horses, indicate the antiquity of a practice still in vogue; for staining the hair of riding animals with spots of various colors, and dyeing their limbs and tails crimson, is a practice of common occurrence in the East [ASS].
On the natural history of the horse there is no occasion to enter in this place; but it may be proper to notice that the riding bridle was long a mere slip-knot, passed round the under jaw into the mouth, thus furnishing only one rein; and that a rod was commonly added to guide the animal with more facility. The bridle, however, and the reins of chariot-horses were, at a very early age, exceedingly perfect; as the monuments of Egypt, Etruria, and Greece, amply prove. Saddles were not used, the rider sitting on the bare back, or using a cloth or mat girded on the animal. The Romans, no doubt copying the Persian Cataphract?, first used pad-saddles, and from the northern nations adopted stimuli or spurs. Stirrups were unknown. Avicenna first mentions the rikiab, or Arabian stirrup, perhaps the most ancient; although in the tumuli of Central Asia, Tahtar horse skeletons, bridles, and stirrup-saddles, have been found along with idols; which proves the tombs to be more ancient than the introduction of Islam. With regard to horseshoeing, Bishop Lowth and Bracy Clark were mistaken in believing that the Roman horse or mule shoe was fastened on without nails driven through the horny part of the hoof, as at present. A contrary conclusion may be inferred from several passages in the poets: and the figure of a horse in the Pompeii battle mosaic, shod in the same manner as is now the practice, leaves little doubt on the question.
The Popular Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature
by John Kitto.
Psa_32:9 (a) This is a warning that the believer should use good judgment, think for himself, and not be just as an animal that must be guided by another.
Psa_33:17 (b) This is a type of any human resource in which people trust for deliverance instead of in the living GOD.
Jer_12:5 (c) This is a peculiar type - the footmen represent ordinary Christians living ordinary Christian lives. They make the unsaved man weary and he wishes to get away from their influence and company. The horses represent Christians who have come to full growth even perhaps those who have already been taken to Heaven. If the weak Christian wearies the sinner, how much more will those Christians who have been made like CHRIST and have been brought into perfect manhood and full stature for GOD? The sinner would not be able to stand their presence at all.
The horses in Zechariah 1 and 6 probably represent great movements wrought by GOD in dealing with men.
Zec_6:2 (b) The red horse - a type of the destructive power of war. (See also Rev_6:4).
Zec_6:3 (b) The black horse - represents world-wide famine which naturally follows great wars both international and internal. (See also Rev_6:5). Each person receives his food by weight.
Zec_6:3 (b) Bay horse - probably represents the scourge of pestilence and disease which follows upon the famine that follows the war. (See also Rev_6:8).
Zec_6:3 (b) The white horse - probably represents a man-made peace which will be forced upon the world by the antichrist under the guise of religion and righteousness. It will be a false peace which will not stand. (See also Rev_6:2).
Rev_19:11 (b) The white horse - typical of the great power which the Lord JESUS will exhibit in righteousness and justice when He comes forth from Heaven as the Almighty Conqueror.
Wilson's Dictionary of Bible Types
press 1957.
Horse
סוּס,sias, ἵππος, of frequent occurrence; other less usual or proper terms and epithets are סוּסָהּ, susah', a mnare, rendered company of horses, i.e. cavalry, Song of Solomon 1, 9; פָּרָשׁ, parash', Ahorse for riding, horseman, of frequent occurrence; רֶכֶבor רָכִב, re'keb or Raakab,' a beast of burden, also a chariot, charioteer, or chariot-horse, especially a team, variously rendered, and of frequent occurrence; אִבַּיר, abbir', strong, as an epithet of the horse, only in Jeremiah, as Jer_8:16; Jer_47:3; Jeremiah 1, 11; רֶכֶּשׁ, re'kesh, a horse of a nobler breed, a courser, rendered dromedary in 1Ki_4:8; mule, Est_8:10; Est_8:14; swift beast, Mic_1:13; רִמָּךְ, ramm-ak', a mare, rendered dromedary, Est_8:10. The origin of the first two of these terms is not satisfactorily made out; Pott (E'tym. Forsch. 1, 60) connects them respectively with Susa and Pares, or Persia, as the countries whence the horse was derived; and it is worthy of remark that sus was also employed in Egypt for a marme, showing that it was a foreign term there, if not also in Palestine. There is a marked distinction between the sus and the parash; the former were horses for driving in the war-chariot, of a heavy build, the latter were for riding, and particularly for cavalry. This distinction is not observed in the A.V. from the circumstance that parash also signifies horseman; the correct sense is essential in the following passages 1Ki_4:26, forty- thousand chariot-horses and twelve thousand cavalry-horses; Eze_27:14, driving-horses and riding-horses; Joe_2:4, as riding-horses, so shall they run; and Isa_21:7, a train of horses in couples.
The most striking feature in the Biblical notices of the horse is the exclusive application of it to warlike operations; in no instance is that useful animal employed for the purposes of ordinary locomotion or agriculture, if we except Isa_28:28, where we learn that horses (A.V. horsemen) were employed in threshing, not, however, in that case put in the gears, but simply driven about wildly over the strewed grain. This remark will be found to be borne out by the historical passages hereafter quoted, but it is equally striking in the poetical parts of Scripture. The animated description of the horse in Job_39:19-25, applies solely to the war-horse; the mane streaming in the breeze (A.V. thunder) which clothes his neck; his lofty bounds as a grasshopper; his hoofs digging in the valley with excitement; his terrible snorting are brought before us, and his ardor for the strife. The following is a close rendering of this fine description of the war-horse: Canst thou give to the horse prowess?
Canst thou clothe his neck [with] a shuddering [mane]? Canst thou make him prance like the locust? The grandeur of his snorting [is] formidable. They will [eagerly] paw in the valley, And [each] rejoice in vigor; He will go forth to meet [the] weapon: He will laugh at dread, Nor will he cower, Nor' retreat from before [the] sword: Against him may rattle quiver, Flaming lance or dart [in vain]. With prancing and restlessness he will absorb [the earth [by fleetness]; Nor can he stand still when the sound of the trumpet [is heard]: As oft [as the] trumpet [sounds], he will say, Aha! For from afar he can scent [the battle], The thunder of the captains and shouting.
So, again, the bride advances with her charms to an immediate conquest as a company of horses in Pharaoh's chariots (Son_1:9); and when the prophet Zechariah wishes to convey the idea of perfect peace, he represents the horse, no more mixing in the fray as before (Song of Solomon 9:10), but bearing on his bell (which was intended to strike terror into the foe) the peaceable inscription, Holiness unto the Lord (Song of Solomon 14:20). Lastly, the characteristic of the horse is not so much his speed or his utility, but his strength (Psa_33:17; Psa_147:10), as shown in the special application of the term abbir (אִבַּיר), i.e. strong, as an equivalent for a horse (Jer_8:16; Jer_47:3; Jeremiah 1, 11). Hence the horse becomes the symbol of war, or of a campaign (Zec_10:3; comp. Psa_45:5; Deu_32:13; Psa_56:12; Isa_58:14, where horsemanship is made typical of conquest), especially of speedy conquest (Jer_4:13), or rapid execution of any purpose (Revelation 6).
The Hebrews in the patriarchal age, as a pastoral race, did not stand in need of the services of the horse, and for a long period after their settlement in Canaan they dispensed with it, partly in consequence of the hilly nature of the country, which only admitted of the use of chariots in certain localities (Jdg_1:19), and partly in consequence of the prohibition in Deu_17:16, which would be held to apply at all periods. Accordingly they hamstrung the horses of the Canaanites (Jos_11:6; Jos_11:9). David first established a force of cavalry and chariots after the defeat of Hadadezer (2Sa_8:4), when he reserved a hundred chariots, and, as we may infer, all the horses; for the rendering houghed all the chariot-horses is manifestly incorrect. Shortly after this Absalom was possessed of some (2Sa_15:1). But the great supply of horses was subsequently effected by Solomon through his connection with Egypt; he is reported to have had 40,000 stalls of horses for his chariots, and 12,000 cavalry-horses (1Ki_4:26), and it is worthy of notice that these forces are mentioned parenthetically to account for the great security of life and property noticed in the preceding verse.
There is probably an error in the former of these numbers; for the number of chariots is given in 1Ki_10:26; 2Ch_1:14, as 1400, and consequently, if we allow three horses for each chariot, two in use and one as a reserve, as was usual in some countries (Xenoph. Cyrop. 6, 1, § 27), the number required would be 4200, or, in round numbers, 4000, which is probably the correct reading. Solomon also established a very active trade in horses, which were brought by dealers out of Egypt, and resold at a profit to the Hittites, who lived between Palestine and the Euphrates. The passage in which this commerce is described (1Ki_10:28-29) is unfortunately obscure; the tenor of 1Ki_10:28 seems to be that there was a regularly established traffic, the Egyptians bringing the horses to a mart in the south of Palestine, and handing them over to the Hebrew dealers at a fixed tariff. The price of a horse was fixed at 150 shekels of silver, and that of a chariot at 600; in the latter we must include the horses (for an Egyptian war-chariot was of no great value), and conceive, as before, that three horses accompanied each chariot, leaving the value of the chariot itself at 150 shekels. In addition to this source of supply, Solomon received horses by way of tribute (1Ki_10:25). He bought chariots and teams of horses in Egypt (1Ki_10:28), and probably in Armenia, in all lands and had them brought into his dominions in strings, in the same manner as horses are still conducted to and from fairs for this interpretation, as offered by professor Paxton, appears to convey the natural and true meaning of the text; and not strings of linen yam, which here seem to be out of place (2Ch_1:16-17; 2Ch_9:25; 2Ch_9:28). The cavalry force was maintained by the succeeding kings, and frequent notices occur both of riding-horses and chariots (2Ki_9:21; 2Ki_9:33; 2Ki_11:16), and particularly of war-chariots (1Ki_22:4; 2Ki_3:7; Isa_2:7). The force seems to have failed in the time of Hezekiah (2Ki_18:23) in Judah, as it had previously in Israel under Jehoahaz (2Ki_13:7). Josiah took away the horses, which the kings of Judah, his predecessors, had consecrated to the sun (2Ki_23:11). SEE SUN. The number of horses belonging to the Jews on their return, from Babylon is stated at 736 (Neh_7:68).
In the countries adjacent to Palestine the use of the horse was much more frequent. It was introduced into Egypt probably by the Hyksos, as it is not represented on the monuments before the 18th dynasty (Wilkinson, 1, 386, abridgm.). Yet these animals are not mentioned among the presents which Abraham received from Pharaoh (Gen_12:16), and occur first in Scripture among the valuables paid by the Egyptians to Joseph in exchange for grain (Gen_47:17). They were still sufficiently important to be expressly mentioned in the funeral procession, which accompanied the body of Jacob to his sepulcher in Canaan (Gen_1:9). At the period of the Exodus horses were abundant in Egypt (Exo_9:3; Exo_14:9; Exo_14:23; Deu_17:17), and subsequently, as we have already seen, they were able to supply the nations of Western Asia. The Tyrians purchased these animals from Solomon, and in the time of Ezekiel imported horses themselves from Togarmah or Armenia (Eze_27:14). The Jewish kings sought the assistance of the Egyptians against the Assyrians in this respect (Isa_31:1; Isa_36:8; Eze_17:15). The Canaanites were possessed of them (Dent. 20:1; Jos_11:4; Jdg_4:3; Jdg_5:22; Jdg_5:28), and likewise the Syrians (2Sa_8:4; 1Ki_20:1; 2Ki_6:14; 2Ki_7:7; 2Ki_7:10) notices, which are confirmed by the pictorial representations on Egyptian monuments (Wilkinson, 1, 393, 397, 401), and by the Assyrian inscriptions relating to Syrian expeditions. But the cavalry of the Assyrians themselves and other Eastern nations was regarded as most formidable; the horses themselves were highly bred, as the Assyrian sculptures still testify, and fully merited the praise bestowed on them by Habakkuk (Hab_1:8), swifter than leopards, and more fierce than the evening wolves; their riders clothed in blue, captains and rulers, all of them desirable young men (Eze_23:6), armed with the bright sword and glittering spear (Nah_3:3), made a deep impression on the Jews, who, plainly clad, went on foot; as also did their regular array as they proceeded in couples, contrasting with the disorderly troops of asses and camels which followed with the baggage (Isa_21:7, rekeb in this passage signifying rather a train than a single chariot). The number employed by the Eastern potentates was very great, Holofernes possessing not less than 12.000 (Jdt_2:15). At a later period we have frequent notices of the cavalry of the Graeco-Syrian monarchs (1Ma_1:18; 1Ma_3:39, etc.).
The above notices of the use of the horse by the ancient Egyptians derives abundant illustration from their monuments. In the sculptured battle- scenes, which are believed to represent victories of Sesostris, or of Thothmes II and III, over nations of Central Asia, it is evident that the enemy's armies, as well as the foreign allies of Egypt, were abundantly supplied with horses, both for chariots and for riders; and in triumphal processions they are shown as presents or tribute-proving that they were portions of the national wealth of conquered states sufficiently valuable to be prized in Egypt. That the Assyrians and Babylonians were equally well supplied with this valuable animal is likewise attested by the martial scenes depicted on the sculptures discovered among the ruins of Nineveh and the vicinity. They are represented in almost every variety of position and employment, such as the chase, and for other purposes of pleasure; but chiefly in war, for which the Assyrians used them both with the saddle and in the: chariot. According to Mr. Layard (Nineveh, 1st series, 1, 275 sq.), the horses of the Assyrians were well formed and of noble blood, as appears from the figures no doubt faithfully copied on the sculptures. Cavalry formed an important part of the Assyrian army. The horsemen carried the bow and spear, and wore coats of mail, high greaves, and the pointed helmet. Their horses also were covered, and even, it would seem, with a kind of leather armor, from the head to the tail, to protect them from the arrows of the enemy. It consisted of several pieces fastened together by buttons or loops. Over it was thrown an ornamented saddlecloth, or a leopard's skin, upon which the rider sat. Under the head of the horse was hung a bell (comp. Zec_14:20) or a tassel. The reins appear to have been tightened round the neck of the horse by a sliding button, and then dropped as the war Tior was engaged in fight. Between the horse's ears was an arched crest, and the different parts of the harness were richly embroidered, and ornamented with rosettes (Layard's Nin. 2nd ser. p. 456). SEE HORSEMAN.
With regard to the trappings and management of the horse among the Hebrews and adjoining nations, we (have little information; the bridle (resen) was placed over the horse's nose (Isa_30:28), and a bit or curb (metheg) is also noticed (2Ki_19:28; Psa_32:9; Pro_26:3; Isa_37:29; in the A.V. it is incorrectly given bridle, with the exception of Psalms 32). The harness of the Assyrian horses was profusely decorated, the bits being gilt (1Es_3:6), and the bridles adorned with tassels; on the neck was a collar terminating in a bell, as described by Zechariah (Zec_14:20). Saddles were not used until a late period; only one is represented on the Assyrian sculptures (Layard, 2, 357). The horses were not shod, and therefore hoofs as hard as flint (Isa_5:28) were regarded as a great merit. The chariot- horses were covered with embroidered trappings-the precious clothes manufactured at Dedan (Eze_27:20) these were fastened by straps and buckles, and to this perhaps reference is made in Pro_30:31, in the term zarzir, one girded about the loins (A.V. greyhound). Thus adorned, Mordecai rode in state through the streets of Shushan (Est_6:9). White horses were more particularly appropriate to such occasions as being significant of victory (Rev_6:2; Rev_19:11; Rev_19:14).
Horses and chariots were used also in idolatrous processions, as noticed in regard to the sun (2Ki_23:11). As to kinds of harness, etc., by means of which the services of the horse were anciently made available by other nations, it may be well to notice that the riding bridle was long a mere slip-knot, passed round the under jaw into the mouth, thus furnishing only one rein; and that a rod was commonly added to guide the animal with more facility. The bridle, however, and the reins of chariot-horses were, at a very early age, exceedingly perfect, as the monuments of Egypt, Etruria, and Greece amply prove. Saddles were not used, the rider sitting on the bare back, or using a cloth or mat girded on the animal. The Romans, no doubt copying the Persian Cataphractae, first used pad saddles, and from the northern nations adopted stimuli or spurs. Stirrups were unknown. Avicenna first mentions the rikiab, or Arabian stirrup, perhaps the most ancient; although in the tumuli of Central Asia, Tahtar horse skeletons, bridles, and stirrup saddles have been found along with idols, which proves the tombs to be more ancient than the introduction of Islam. With regard to horseshoeing, bishop Lowth and Bracy Clark were mistaken in believing that the Roman horse or mule shoe was fastened on without nails driven through the horny part of the hoof, as at present. A contrary conclusion may be inferred from several passages in the poets; and the figure of a horse in the Pompeii battle mosaic, shod in the same manner as is now the practice, leaves little doubt on the question. The principal use of horses anciently was for the chariot, especially in war; to this they were attached by means of a pole and yoke like oxen, a practice which continued down to the times of the Romans. (See Bible Animals, p. 248 sq.) SEE CHARIOT; SEE BRIDLE.
It appears that the horse was derived from High Asia, and was not indigenous in Arabia, Syria, or Egypt (Jardine's Naturalist's Library, vol. 12), where his congeners the zebra, quagga, and ass are still found in primitive freedom, although the horse is found in all parts of the world free, it is true, but only as a wild descendant of a once domesticated stock. (See Schlieben, Die Pferde des Alterthums, Neuwied. 1867; Abd el Kader, Horses of the Desert, trans. by Daumas, London, 1863.) All the great original varieties or races of horses were then known in Western Asia, and the Hebrew prophets themselves have not infrequently distinguished the nations they had in view by means of the predominant colors of their horses, and that more correctly than commentators have surmised. Taking Bochart's application (Hieroz. 1, 31 sq.) of the Hebrew names, the bay race, אָדוֹם, adom., emphatically belonged to Egypt and Arabia Felix; the white, לְבֹנַים, lebonim, to the regions above the Euxine Sea, Asia Minor, and northern High Asia; the dun, or cream-colored, שְׂרֻקַּים, serukkim, to the Medes; the spotted piebald, or skewbald, בְּרֻדַּים, beruddim, to the Macedonians, the Parthians, and later Tahtars; and the black, שָׁחוֹרַים, shachorim, to the Romans; but the chestnut, אִמוֹוֹ,am, otz, does not belong to any known historical race (Zec_1:8; Zec_6:2). SEE ASS; SEE MULE; SEE DROMEDARY. Bay or red horses occur most frequently on Egyptian painted monuments, this being the primitive color of the Arabian stock, but white horses are also common, and, in a few instances, black the last probably only to relieve the paler color of the one beside it in the picture. There is also, we understand, an instance of a spotted pair, tending to show that the valley of the Nile was originally supplied with horses from foreign sources and distinct regions, as, indeed, the tribute pictures further attest. The spotted, if not real, but painted horses, indicate the antiquity of a practice still in vogue; for staining the hair of riding animals with spots of various colors, and dyeing their limbs and tails crimson, is a practice of common occurrence in the East. These colors are typical, in some passages of Scripture, of various qualities, e.g. the white of victory, the black of defeat and calamity, the red of bloodshed, etc. (compare Revelation 6). SEE COLOR.
CYCLOPEDIA OF BIBLICAL, THEOLOGICAL AND ECCLESIASTICAL
press 1895.
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