Altar

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ALTAR.—1. The original purpose of an altar was to serve as a means by which the blood of an animal offered in sacrifice might be brought into contact with, or otherwise transferred to, the deity of the worshipper. For this purpose in the earliest period a single stone sufficed. Either the blood was poured over this stone, which was regarded as the temporary abode of the deity, or the stone was anointed with part, and the rest poured out at its base. The introduction of fire to consume the flesh in whole or in part belongs to a later stage in the history of sacrifice (wh. see). But even when this stage had long been reached, necessity might compel a temporary reversion to the earlier modus operandi, as we learn from Saul’s procedure in 1Sa_14:33 f. From the altar of a single ‘great stone’ (1Sa_6:14) the transition was easy to an altar built of unhewn stones (Exo_20:25, Deu_27:5 f. RV [Note: Revised Version.] ), which continued to he the normal type of Hebrew altar to the end (see 1Ma_4:41; Jos. [Note: Josephus.] BJ V. v. 6).
2. Another type of pre-historic altar, to which much less attention has been paid, had its origin in the primitive conception of sacrifice as the food of the gods. As such it was appropriately presented on a table. Now the nearest analogy to the disc of leather spread on the ground, which was and is the table of the Semitic nomad, was the smooth face of the native rock, such as that on which Manoah spread his offering (Jdg_13:19 f., cf. Jdg_6:20 f.). The well-known rock-surfaces, in Palestine and elsewhere, with their mysterious cup-marks—typical specimens are illustrated PEFSt [Note: Quarterly Statement of the same.] , 1900, 32 ff., 249—to receive the sacrificial blood, can scarcely be other than pre-historic table-altars. The similarly marked table-stones of Syrian dolmens also belong here. A further stage in the evolution of the table altar is seen in the elaborate structures recently discovered within the West-Semitic area. In these the rock is cut away so as to leave the altar standing free, to which rock-cut steps lead up, an arrangement forbidden, from motives of decency, by the earliest legislation (Exo_20:26, with which cf. Exo_28:42 f. and parall. from a later date). The uppermost step served as a platform for the officiating priest. Some show cup-hollows for libations of blood (see illust. in Moore’s ‘Judges’ in SBOT [Note: BOT Sacred Books of Old Testament.] p. 83), while that first discovered at Petra has a depression for the altar-hearth (PEFSt [Note: Quarterly Statement of the same.] , 1900, 350 ff. with sketch; see also Ariel). Its dimensions are 9 ft. by 6, with a height above the platform of 3 ft. The altars of the more important sanctuaries under the Hebrew monarchy, such as Bethel, were probably of a similar nature. A description of ‘the altar of burnt-offering’ of the Tabernacle will be given under Tabernacle; for the corresponding altars of the Temple of Solomon and its successors, and of Ezekiel’s sketch, see Temple.
3. A third variety of primitive altar is the mound of earth (Exo_20:24), a copy in miniature of the hill-tops which were at all times favourite places of worship (see High Place).
4. All the types of altar above described were intended for the ordinary open-air sacrificial service, details of which will be found under Sacrifice. There is no clear reference earlier than Jeremiah to the use of incense, and no reference at all to any altar of incense in the legitimate worship before the Exile, for 1Ki_7:48 in its present form is admittedly late, and the altar of 1Ki_6:20 must be the table of shewbread (see Temple, Shewbread).
5. From what has already been said, it is evident that an altar was the indispensable requisite of every place of worship. It was not until the 7th cent. b.c. that Josiah succeeded in abolishing ‘the high places’ and destroying or desecrating their altars (2Ki_23:5 ff.), in accordance with the fundamental demand of the Deuteronomic law-code (Deu_12:1 ff.). In the older historical and prophetical writings, however, and even in the earliest legislation (see Exo_20:24 RV [Note: Revised Version.] ), the legitimacy of the local altars is never called in question. On the contrary, religious leaders such as Samuel and Elijah show their zeal for the worship of J″ [Note: Jahweh.] by the erection and repair of altars.
6. As altars to which a special interest attaches may be mentioned that erected by David on the threshing floor of Araunah (2Sa_24:18 ff.), the site of which is marked by the present mosque of ‘the Dome of the Rock’; the altar erected by Ahaz after the model of one seen by him at Damascus (2Ki_16:10 ff.); the sacrificial and incense altars to the host of heaven in the courts and probably even on the roof of the Temple (2Ki_23:12, Jer_19:13); and finally, the altar to Olympian Zeus placed by Antiochus Epiphanes on the top of the altar of burnt-offering (1Ma_1:54).
7. Reference must also be made to altars as places of refuge for certain classes of criminals, attested both by legislation (Exo_21:13 f.) and history (1Ki_1:51; 1Ki_2:28; see more fully, Refuge [Cities of]). The origin and precise significance of the horns of the altar, of which the refugee laid hold (1Kings ll. cc.), and which played an important part in the ritual (Exo_29:12, Lev_4:7 ff.), have not yet received a satisfactory explanation. A small limestone altar, showing the horns in the form of rounded knobs at the four corners, has just been discovered at Gezer (PEFSt [Note: Quarterly Statement of the same.] , 1907, p. 196, with illust.).
A. R. S. Kennedy.
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible
Edited by James Hastings, D.D. Published in 1909

The first of which we have mention was built by Noah after leaving the ark (Gen_8:20). The English (from the Latin) means an elevation or high place: not the site, but the erections on them which could be built or removed (1Ki_12:7; 2Ki_23:15). So the Greek bomos, and Hebrew bamath. But the proper Hebrew name mizbeach is "the sacrificing place;" Septuagint thusiasterion. Spots hallowed by divine revelations or appearances were originally the sites of altars (Gen_12:7; Gen_13:18; Gen_26:25; Gen_35:1). Mostly for sacrificing; sometimes only as a memorial, as that named by Moses Jehovah Nissi, the pledge that Jehovah would war against Amalek to all generations (Exo_17:15-16), and that built by Reuben, Gad, and half Manasseh, "not for burnt offering, nor sacrifice, but as a witness" (Jos_22:26-27).
Altars were to be made only of earth or else unhewn stone, on which no iron tool was used, and without steps up to them (Exo_20:24-26). Steps toward the E. on the contrary are introduced in the temple yet future (Eze_43:17), marking its distinctness from any past temple. No pomp or ornament was allowed; all was to be plain and simple; for it was the meeting place between God and the sinner, and therefore a place of shedding of blood without which there is no remission (Lev_17:11; Heb_9:22), a place of fellowship with God for us only through death. The mother dust of earth, or its stones in their native state as from the hand of God, were the suitable material. The art of sinful beings would mar, rather than aid, the consecration of the common meeting ground. The earth made for man's nourishment, but now the witness of his sin and drinker in of his forfeited life, was the most suitable (see Fairbairn, Typology). The altar was at "the door of the tabernacle of the tent of the congregation" (Exo_40:29).
In the tabernacle the altar of burnt offering was made of shittim (acacia) boards overlaid with brass, terming a square of five cubits, or eight feet. three cubits high or five feet, the hollow within being probably filled with earth or stones. A ledge (Hebrew karkob) projected on the side for the priest to stand on, to which a slope of earth gradually led up on the S. side, and outside the ledge was a network of brass. At the grainers were four horn shaped projections. to which the victim was bound (Psa_118:27), and which were touched with blood in consecrating priests (Exo_29:12), and in the sin offering (Lev_4:7). The horn symbolizes might. The culmination's of the altar, being hornlike, imply the mighty salvation and security which Jehovah engages to the believing worshippers approaching Him in His own appointed way. Hence it was the asylum or place of refuge (1Ki_1:50; Exo_21:14).
So the Antitype, Christ (Isa_27:5; Isa_25:4). To grasp the altar horns in faith was to lay hold of Jehovah's strength. In Solomon's temple the altar square was entirely of brass, and was 20 cubits, or from 30 to 35 feet, and the height 10 cubits. In Mal_1:7; Mal_1:12, it is called "the table of the Lord." In Herod's temple the altar was 50 cubits long, and 50 broad, and 15 high; a pipe from the S.W. grainer conveyed away the blood to the brook Kedron. Except in emergencies (as Jdg_6:24; 1Sa_7:9-10; 2Sa_24:18; 2Sa_24:25; 1Ki_8:64; 1Ki_18:31-32) only the one altar was sanctioned (Lev_17:8-9; Deu_12:13-14), to mark the unity and ubiquity of God, as contrasted with the many altars of the manifold idols and local deities of pagandom. Every true Israelite, wherever he might be, realized his share in the common daily sacrifices at the one altar in Zion, whence Jehovah ruled to the ends of the earth.
Christ is the antitype, the one altar or meeting place between God and man, the one only atonement for sinners, the one sacrifice, and the one priest (Act_4:12; Heb_13:10). Christ's Godhead, on which He offered His manhood, "sanctifieth the gift" (Mat_23:19), and prevents the sacrifice being consumed by God's fiery judicial wrath against man's sin. To those Judaizers who object that Christians have no altar or sacrificial meats, Paul says, "we have" (the emphasis in Greek is on have; there is no we) emphatically, but it is a spiritual altar and sacrifice. So Heb_4:14-15; Heb_8:1; Heb_9:1; Heb_10:1; Heb_10:19-21. The interpretation which makes "altar" the Lord's table is opposed to the scope of the Epistle to the Heb., which contrasts the outward sanctuary with the unseen spiritual sanctuary.
Romanisers fall under the condemnation of Hos_8:11. The Epistle to the Hebrew reasons, servile adherents to visible altar meats are excluded from our Christian spiritual altar and meats: "For He, the true Altar, from whom we derive spiritual meats, realized the sin offering type" (of which none of the meat was eaten, but all was burnt: Lev_6:30) "by suffering without the gate: teaching that we must go forth after Him from the Jewish high priest's camp of legal ceremonialism and meats, which stood only until the gospel times of reformation" (Heb_9:10-11). The temple and holy city were the Jewish people's camp in their solemn feasts.
The brass utensils for the altar (Exo_27:3) were pans, to receive the ashes and fat; shovels, for removing the ashes; basins, for the blood; flesh hooks, with three prongs, to take flesh out of the cauldron (1Sa_2:13-14); firepans, or censers, for taking coals off the altar, or for burning incense (Lev_16:12; Num_16:6-7; Exo_25:38); the same Hebrew maktoth means snuff dishes, as "tongs" means snuffers for the candlesticks. Asa "renewed" the altar, i.e. reconsecrated it, after it had been polluted by idolatries (2Ch_20:8). (See AHAZ (see) removed it to the N. side of the new altar which Urijah the priest had made after the pattern which Ahaz had seen at Damascus (2Ki_16:14). Hezekiah had it "cleansed" (2Ch_29:12-18) of all the uncleanness brought into it in Ahaz' reign. Manasseh, on his repentance, repaired it (2Ch_33:16). Rabbis pretended it stood on the spot where man was created. In Zerubbabel's temple the altar was built before the temple foundations were laid (Ezr_3:2).
After its desecration by Antiochus Epiphanes, Judas Maccabaeus built a new altar of unhewn stones. A perpetual fire kept on it symbolized the perpetuity of Jehovah's religion; for, sacrifice being the center of the Old Testament worship, to extinguish it would have been to extinguish the religion. The perpetual fire of the Persian religion was different, for this was not sacrificial, but a symbol of God, or of the notion that, fire was a primary element. The original fire of the tabernacle "came out from before the Lord, and consumed upon the altar the burnt offering and the fat" (Lev_9:24). The rabbis say, It couched upon the altar like a lion, bright as the sun, the flame solid and pure, consuming things wet and dry alike, without smoke. The divine fire on the altar; the shekinah cloud, representing the divine habitation with them, which was given to the king and the high priest with the oil of unction; the spirit of prophecy; the Urim and Thummim whereby the high priest miraculously learned God's will; and the ark of the covenant, whence God gave His answers in a clear voice, were the five things of the old temple wanting in the second temple.
Heated stones (Hebrew) were laid upon the altar, by which the incense was kindled (Isa_6:6). The golden altar of incense (distinguished from the brazen altar of burnt offering), of acacia wood (in Solomon's temple cedar) underneath, two cubits high, one square. Once a year, on the great day of atonement, the high priest sprinkled upon its horns the blood of the sin offering (Exo_30:6-10; Lev_16:18-19). Morning and evening incense was burnt on it with fire taken from the altar of burnt offering. It had a border round the top, and two golden rings at the sides for the staves to bear it with. It was "before the veil that is by the ark of the testimony, before the mercy seat;" between the candlestick and the shewbread table. In Heb_9:4, KJV, "censer," not "altar of incense," is right; for the latter was in the outer not the inner holy place.
The inner, or holiest, place "had the golden censer" belonging to its yearly atonement service, not kept in it. The altar of incense also was close by the second veil, directly before the ark (1Ki_6:22), "by (Hebrew belonging to) the oracle," i.e. holiest place. Jesus' death rent the veil, and has brought the antitypes to the candlestick, shewbread table, and altar of incense into the heavenly, holiest place. This altar alone appears there, namely, that of prayer and praise. Christ is the heavenly attar as well as the only intercession, through the incense of whose merits our prayers are accepted. "The souls under the altar" (Rev_6:9) are shut up unto Him in joyful expectancy, until He come to raise the sleeping bodies (Rev_8:3-4). (See NADAB and (See ABIHU (see) were smitten for burning "strange fire" (i.e. fire not taken from the altar of burnt offering), thereby breaking the He between the incense altar and the sacrificial burnt offering altar. The incense daily offered symbolized prayer (Psa_141:2; Luk_1:10).
As the incense on the altar within drew its kindling from the fire of the sacrificial altar without, so believing prayer of the heart within, continually ascending to God, rests on one's having first once for all become sharer in the benefit of Christ's outward sacrificial atonement. Therefore the inner altar was ornate and golden, the outer altar bore marks of humiliation and death. Nowhere is an altar in the sacrificial sense in the Christian church recognized in the New Testament The words "we have an altar" (Heb_13:10; note that it is not altars, such as apostate churches erect in their worship), so far from sanctioning a Christian altar on earth, oppose the idea; for Christ Himself is our altar of which we spiritually eat, and of which they who Judaize, by serving the tabernacle and resting on meats and ordinances, "have no right to eat." Our sacrifices are spiritual, not the dead letter; compare
Heb_13:9; Heb_13:15-16.
The "altar to an unknown God" mentioned by Paul (Act_17:22) was erected in time of a plague at Athens, when they knew not what god to worship for removing it. Epimenides caused black, and white sheep to be let loose from the Areopagus, and wherever they lay down to be offered to the appropriate deity. Diogenes Laertius, Pausanias, and Philostratus, pagan writers, confirm the accuracy of Scripture by mentioning several altars at Athens to the unknown or unnamed deity. "Superstitious" is too severe a word for the Greek; Paul's object was to conciliate, and he tells the Athenians: Ye are "rather religious," or "more given to religion" than is common, "rather given to veneration." In Eze_43:15 "altar" is lit. harel, "mount of God," denoting the high security which it will afford to restored Israel; a high place indeed, but the high place of God, not of idols.
Fausset's Bible Dictionary
By Andrew Robert Fausset, co-Author of Jamieson, Fausset and Brown's 1888.

Altar. The first altar of which we have any account is that built by Noah when he left the ark. Gen_8:20. In the early times, altars were usually built in certain spots hallowed by religious associations, for example, where God appeared. Gen_12:7; Gen_13:18; Gen_26:25; Gen_35:1. Though generally erected for the offering of sacrifice, in some instances, they appear to have been only memorials. Gen_12:7; Exo_17:15-16. Altars were most probably originally made of earth. The law of Moses allowed them to be made of either earth or unhewn stones. Exo_20:24-25.
I. The Altar of Burnt Offering. It differed in construction at different times.
(1) In the Tabernacle, Exo_27:1 ff.; Exo_38:1 ff., it was comparatively small and portable. In shape it was square. It as five cubits in length, the same in breadth, and three cubits high. It was made of planks of shittim (or acacia) wood overlaid with brass. The interior was hollow. Exo_27:8. At the four corners were four projections called horns made, like the altar itself, of shittim wood overlaid with brass, Exo_27:2, and to them the victim was bound when about to be sacrificed. Psa_118:27.
Round the altar, midway between the top and bottom, ran a projecting ledge, on which perhaps the priest stood when officiating. To the outer edge of this, again, a grating or network of brass was affixed, and reached to the bottom of the altar. At the four corners of the network were four brazen rings, into which were inserted the staves by which the altar was carried. These staves were of the same material as the altar itself. As the priests were forbidden to ascend the altar by steps, Exo_20:26, it has been conjectured that a slope of earth led gradually up to the ledge from which they officiated. The place of the altar was at the door of the Tabernacle of the congregation). Exo_40:29.
(2) In Solomon's Temple, the altar was considerably larger in its dimensions. It differed too in the material of which it was made, being entirely of brass. 1Ki_8:64; 2Ch_7:7. It had no grating, and instead of a single gradual slope, the ascent to it was probably made by three successive platforms, to each of which it has been supposed that steps led. The altar erected by Herod in front of the Temple was 15 cubits in height and 50 cubits in length and breadth. According to Lev_6:12-13, a perpetual fire was to be kept burning on the altar.
II. The Altar of Incense, called also the golden altar to distinguish it from the Altar of Burnt Offering which was called the brazen altar. Exo_38:30.
(a) That in the Tabernacle was made of acacia wood, overlaid with pure gold. In shape it was square, being a cubit in length and breadth and two cubits in height. Like the Altar of Burnt Offering, it had horns at the four corners, which were of one piece with the rest of the altar. This altar stood in the Holy Place, "before the vail that is by the Ark of the Testimony." Exo_30:6; Exo_40:5.
(b) The altar of Solomon's Temple was similar, 1Ki_7:48; 1Ch_28:18, but was made of cedar overlaid with gold.
III. Other Altars. In Act_17:23, reference is made to an alter to an unknown God. There were several altars in Athens with this inscription, erected during the time of a plague. Since they knew not what god was offended and required to be propitiated.
Smith's Bible Dictionary
By Dr. William Smith.Published in 1863

Sacrifices are nearly as ancient as worship, and altars are of almost equal antiquity. Scripture speaks of altars, erected by the patriarchs, without describing their form, or the materials of which they were composed. The altar which Jacob set up at Bethel, was the stone which had served him for a pillow; Gideon sacrificed on the rock before his house.
The first altars which God commanded Moses to raise, were of earth or rough stones; and it was declared that if iron were used in constructing them they would become impure, Exo_20:24-25. The altar which Moses enjoined Joshua to build on Mount Ebal, was to be of unpolished stones, Deu_27:5; Jos_8:31; and it is very probable that such were those built by Samuel, Saul, and David. The altar which Solomon erected in the temple was of brass, but filled, it is believed, with rough stones, 2Ch_4:1-3. It was twenty cubits long, twenty wide, and ten high. That built at Jerusalem, by Zerubbabel, after the return from Babylon, was of rough stones; as was that of Maccabees. Josephus says that the altar which in his time was in the temple was of rough stones, fifteen cubits high, forty long, and forty wide.
Among the Romans altars were of two kinds, the higher and the lower; the higher were intended for the celestial gods, and were called altaria, from altus; the lower were for the terrestrial and infernal gods, and were called arae. Those dedicated to the heavenly gods were raised a great height above the surface of the earth; those of the terrestrial gods were almost even with the surface; and those for the infernal deities were only holes dug in the ground called scrobiculi. Before temples were in use the altars were placed in the groves, highways, or on tops of mountains, inscribed with the names, ensigns, or characters of the respective gods to whom they belonged. The great temples at Rome generally contained three altars; the first in the sanctuary, at the foot of the statue, for incense and libations; the second before the gate of the temple, for the sacrifices of victims; and the third was a portable one for the offerings and sacred vestments or vessels to lie upon. The ancients used to swear upon the altars upon solemn occasions, such as confirming alliances, treaties of peace, &c. They were also places of refuge, and served as an asylum and sanctuary to all who fled to them, whatever their crimes were.
The principal altars among the Jews were those of incense, of burnt- offering, and the altar or table for the shew bread. The altar of incense was a small table of shittim wood covered with plates of gold. It was a cubit long, a cubit broad, and two cubits high. At the four corners were four horns. The priest, whose turn it was to officiate, burnt incense on this altar, at the time of the morning sacrifice between the sprinkling of the blood and the laying of the pieces of the victim on the altar of burnt-offering. He did the same also in the evening, between the laying of the pieces on the altar and the drink-offering. At the same time the people prayed in silence, and their prayers were offered up by the priests. The altar of burnt-offering was of shittim wood also, and carried upon the shoulders of the priests, by staves of the same wood overlaid with brass. In Moses's days it was five cubits square, and three high: but it was greatly enlarged in the days of Solomon, being twenty cubits square, and ten in height. It was covered with brass, and had a horn at each corner to which the sacrifice was tied. This altar was placed in the open air, that the smoke might not sully the inside of the tabernacle or temple. On this altar the holy fire was renewed from time to time, and kept constantly burning. Hereon, likewise, the sacrifices of lambs and bullocks were burnt, especially a lamb every morning at the third hour, or nine of the clock, and a lamb every afternoon at three, Exo_20:24-25; Exo_27:1-2; Exo_27:4; Exo_38:1. The altar of burnt-offering had the privilege of being a sanctuary or place of refuge. The wilful murderer, indeed, sought protection there in vain; for by the express command of God he might be dragged to justice, even from the altar. The altar or table of shew bread was of shittim wood also, covered with plates of gold, and had a border round it adorned with sculpture. It was two cubits long, one wide, and one and a half in height. This table stood in the sanctum sanctorum, [holy of holies,] and upon it were placed the loaves of shew bread. After the return of the Jews from their captivity, and the building of the second temple, the form and size of the altars were somewhat changed.
Sacrifices according to the laws of Moses, could not be offered except by the priests; and at any other place than on the altar of the tabernacle or the temple. Furthermore, they were not to be offered to idols, nor with any superstitious rites. See Lev_17:1-7; Deu_12:15-16. Without these precautionary measures, the true religion would hardly have been secure. If a different arrangement had been adopted, if the priests had been scattered about to various altars, without being subjected to the salutary restraint which would result from a mutual observation of each other, they would no doubt some of them have willingly consented to the worship of idols; and others, in their separate situation, would not have been in a condition to resist the wishes of the multitude, had those wishes been wrong. The necessity of sacrificing at one altar, (that of the tabernacle or temple,) is frequently and emphatically insisted on, Deu_12:13-14; and all other altars are disapproved, Lev_26:30, compare Jos_22:9-34. Notwithstanding this, it appears that, subsequently to the time of Moses, especially in the days of the kings, altars were multiplied; but they fell under suspicions, although some of them were perhaps sacred to the worship of the true God. It is, nevertheless, true, that prophets, whose characters were above all suspicion, sacrificed, in some instances, in other places than the one designated by the laws, 1Sa_13:3-14; 1Sa_16:1-5; 1Ki_18:21-40.
Biblical and Theological Dictionary by Richard Watson
PRINTER 1849.

From the time of Noah there are biblical records of people who erected altars, usually to commemorate special religious experiences that people had with God. Some stories record the offering of sacrifices on these altars (Gen_8:20; Gen_12:7; Gen_13:18; Gen_22:9; Gen_26:25; Gen_33:20; Gen_35:3; Exo_17:15).
Even after the establishment of the tabernacle with its specially appointed bronze altar of sacrifice, Israelites at times erected altars to commemorate important events (Deu_27:5; Jos_8:30-31; Jos_22:10; Jdg_6:24-26; 2Sa_24:18-25; 1Ki_18:30). But these altars were not to be permanent or lavish. They were to consist simply of a mound of earth or a heap of loose stones, depending upon which material was available in the region. The altars were not to be so high that they required steps, in order to avoid any immodesty which might occur if a priest lifted up his robes while climbing the steps (Exo_20:24-26).

In the tabernacle, and later the temple, there were two altars, one in the open courtyard and the other inside the sanctuary. The one in the tabernacle courtyard was called the altar of burnt offering, for it was the altar on which all the animal sacrifices were offered. In appearance it was like a large wooden box overlaid with a metal variously described as bronze, copper or brass. It was five cubits square and three cubits high (a cubit being about forty-four centimetres or eighteen inches). This ‘box’ may have been filled with rocks and dirt to form a mound on which the sacrifices were burnt. Alternatively, the sacrifices may have been burnt on a grid inside the box. Extending halfway up the altar on the outside was a grating that supported a ledge. This may have had some use during the offering of the sacrifices (Exo_27:1-8).
The altar inside the sanctuary was positioned in the Holy Place against the veil, and was only for the offering of incense. It was much smaller than the altar of burnt offering, being only one cubit square and two cubits high. It too was made of wood, but its overlaying metal was gold, befitting the splendour of the shrine in which it was placed (Exo_30:1-10; see also INCENSE; TABERNACLE).

Both the altar of burnt offering and the altar of incense had horn-shaped projections at their corners. The Bible does not explain the practical or symbolic significance of the horns, but blood was sprinkled on them in certain rituals (Exo_27:2; Exo_29:10-12; Exo_30:2; Lev_4:4-7; see HORN). The altars were also fitted with carrying poles, for they were taken with the people on the journey to Canaan (Exo_27:6-7; Exo_30:4-5). (Concerning altars of false religion see BAAL.)
The Bible speaks of no literal altar for the Christian religion; only of the figurative ‘altar’ of Christ’s atoning death. Sacrificial altars and their accompanying festivals belong to the old Jewish religion and have no place in Christianity. When certain Jews in the early church were tempted to combine Christian faith with sacrificial rituals, the writer to the Hebrews told them that such a combination is impossible. If people continue to join in eating sacrifices offered on the Jewish altar, they cannot join in receiving benefits from the sacrifice offered on the Christian ‘altar’, which is the death of Christ (Heb_13:10; cf. 1Co_9:13; 1Co_10:18).
Bridgeway Bible Dictionary by Don Fleming
PRINTER 1990.

ôl?ter (מזבּח, mizbēaḥ, literally, ?place of slaughter or sacrifice,? from זבח, zābhaḥ, which is found in both senses; βωμός, bōmós, (only in Act_17:23), (θυσιαστήριον, thusiastḗrion):
A. Critical
I. Classification of Hebrew Altars
Importance of the Distinction
II. Lay Altars
1. Pre-Mosaic
2. In the Mosaic Age
3. Dangers of the Custom
4. The Mosaic Provisions
III. Horned Altars of Burnt Offering
1. The Tabernacle Altar
2. The Altar of Josh 22
3. The Altar till Solomon
4. The Horned Altar in Use
5. The Temple of Solomon
6. The Altar of Ahaz
7. Ezekiel
8. The Post-exilic Altar
9. Idolatrous and Unlawful Altars
10. The Horns
IV. Altars of Incense
V. Recent Archaeological Materials
1. A Gezer Altar
2. The Taanach Altar of Incense
Literature
A. Critical
I. Classification of Hebrew Altars
Before considering the Biblical texts attention must be drawn to the fact that these texts know of at least two kinds of altars which were so different in appearance that no contemporary could possibly confuse them. The first was an altar consisting of earth or unhewn stones. It had no fixed shape, but varied with the materials. It might consist of a rock (Jdg_13:19) or a single large stone (1Sa_14:33-35) or again a number of stones (1Ki_18:31 f). It could have no horns, nor it would be impossible to give the stone horns without hewing it, nor would a heap of earth lend itself to the formation of horns. It could have no regular pattern for the same reason. On the other hand we meet with a group of passages that refer to altars of quite a different type. We read of horns, of fixed measurements, of a particular pattern, of bronze as the material. To bring home the difference more rapidly illustrations of the two types are given side by side. The first figure represents a cairn altar such as was in use in some other ancient religions. The second is a conjectural restoration of Hebrew altars of burnt offering and incense of the second kind.
Importance of the Distinction
Both these might be and were called altars, but it is so evident that this common designation could not have caused any eye-witness to confuse the two that in reading the Bible we must carefully examine each text in turn and see to which kind the author is referring. Endless confusion has been caused, even in our own time, by the failure to note this distinction, and the reader can hope to make sense of the Biblical laws and narratives only if he be very careful to picture to himself in every case the exact object to which his text refers. For the sake of clearness different terms will be adopted in this article to denote the two kinds of altars. The first will be termed ?lay altars? since, as will be seen, the Law permitted any layman to offer certain sacrifices at an altar of earth or unhewn stone without the assistance of a priest, while the second while be styled ?horned altars,? owing to their possession of horns which, as already pointed out, could not exist in a lay altar that conformed with the provisions of the law.
II. Lay Altars
1. Pre-Mosaic
In Genesis we often read of the erection of altars, e.g. Gen_8:20; Gen_12:7; Gen_13:4. Though no details are given we are able to infer their general character with considerable precision. In reading the accounts it is sometimes evident that we are dealing with some rough improvised structure. For example, when Abraham builds the altar for the sacrifice of Isaac in Gen 22 it cannot be supposed that he used metal or wrought stone. When Jacob makes a covenant with Laban a heap of stones is thrown up ?and they did eat there by the heap? (Gen_31:46). This heap is not expressly termed an altar, but if this covenant be compared with later covenants it will be seen that in these its place is taken by an altar of the lay type (SBL, chapter 2), and it is reasonable to suppose that this heap was in fact used as an altar (compare Gen_31:54). A further consideration is provided by the fact that the Arabs had a custom of using any stone as an altar for the nonce, and certainly such altars are found in the Mosaic and post-Mosaic history. We may therefore feel sure that the altars of Gen were of the general type represented by Fig. 1 and were totally unlike the altars of Fig. 2.
2. In the Mosaic Age
Thus Moses found a custom by which the Israelite threw up rude altars of the materials most easily obtained in the field and offered sacrificial worship to God on sundry occasions. That the custom was not peculiar to the Israelites is shown by such instances as that of Balaam (Num_23:1, etc.). Probably we may take the narrative of Jethro's sacrifice as a fair example of the occasions on which such altars were used, for it cannot be supposed that Aaron and all the elders of Israel were openly committing an unlawful act when they ate bread with Moses' father-in-law before God (Exo_18:12). Again, the narrative in which we see Moses building an altar for the purposes of a covenant probably exemplifies a custom that was in use for other covenants that did not fall to be narrated (Exo_24:4).
3. Dangers of the Custom
But a custom of erecting altars might easily lend itself to abuses. Thus archaeology has shown us one altar - though of a much later date - which is adorned with faces, a practice that was quite contrary to the Mosaic ideas of preserving a perfectly imageless worship. Other possible abuses were suggested by the current practices of the Canaanites or are explained by the terms of the laws. See HIGH PLACE.
4. The Mosaic Provisions
Accordingly Moses regulated these lay altars. Leaving the occasion of their erection and use to be determined by custom he promulgated the following laws: ?An altar of earth mayest thou make unto me, and mayest sacrifice thereon thy burnt offerings and thy peace offerings, thy sheep, and thine oxen; in all the place where I record my name I will come unto thee and I will bless thee. And if thou make me an altar of stone, thou shalt not build it of hewn stones; for if thou lift thy tool upon it, thou hast polluted it. Neither mayest thou go up by steps unto mine altar,? etc. (Exo_20:24-26; so correct English Versions of the Bible). Several remarks must be made on this law. It is a law for laymen, not priests. This is proved by the second person singular and also by the reason given for the prohibition of steps - since the priests were differently garbed. It applies ?in all the place where I record my name,? not, as the ordinary rendering has it, ?in every place.? This latter is quite unintelligible: it is usually explained as meaning places hallowed by theophanies, but there are plenty of instances in the history of lay sacrifices where no theophany can be postulated; see e.g. Gen_31:54; 1Sa_20:6, 1Sa_20:29 (EPC, 185 f). ?All the place? refers to the territory of Israel for the time being. When Naaman desired to cease sacrificing to any deity save the God of Israel he was confronted by the problem of deciding how he could sacrifice to Him outside this ?place.? He solved it by asking for two mules' burden of the earth of the ?place? (2Ki_5:17). Lastly, as already noticed, this law excludes the possibility of giving the altars horns or causing them to conform to any given pattern, since the stone could not be wrought One other law must be noticed in this connection: Deu_16:21 f: 'Thou shalt not plant thee an 'ăshērāh of any kind of tree beside the altar of the Lord thy God, which thou shalt make thee. Neither shalt thou set thee up a pillar, which the Lord thy God hateth.' Here again the reference is probably to the lay altars, not to the religious capital which was under the control of the priests.
III. Horned Altars of Burnt Offering
1. The Tabernacle Altar
In Exo_27:1-8 (compare Exo_38:1-7) a command is given to construct for the Tabernacle an altar of shittim wood covered with bronze. It was to be five cubits long by five broad and three high. The four corners were to have horns of one piece with it. A network of bronze was to reach halfway up the altar to a ledge. In some way that is defined only by reference to what was shown to Moses in the Mount the altar was to be hollow with planks, and it was to be equipped with rings and staves for facility of transport. The precise construction cannot be determined, and it is useless to speculate where the instructions are so plainly governed by what was seen by Moses in the Mount; but certain features that are important for the elucidation of the Bible texts emerge clearly. The altar is rectangular, presenting at the top a square surface with horns at the four corners. The more important material used is bronze, and the whole construction was as unlike that of the ordinary lay altar as possible. The use of this altar in the ritual of the Tabernacle falls under the heading SACRIFICE. Here we must notice that It was served by priests. Whenever we find references to the horns of an altar or to its pattern we see that the writer is speaking of an altar of this general type. Thus, a criminal seeking asylum fled to an altar of this type, as appears from the horns which are mentioned in the two historical instances and also from such expressions as coming down or going up. See ASYLUM.
2. The Altar of Josh 22
We read in Jos_22:9 that the children of Reuben and the children of Gad built an altar. In Jos_22:28 we find them saying, ?Behold the pattern of the altar,? etc. This is decisive as to the meaning, for the lay altar had no pattern. Accordingly in its general shape this altar must have conformed to the type of the Tabernacle altar. It was probably not made of the same materials, for the word ?build? is continually used in connection with it, and this word would scarcely be appropriate for working metal: nor again was it necessarily of the same size, but it was of the same pattern: and it was designed to serve as a witness that the descendants of the men who built it had a portion in the Lord. It seems to follow that the pattern of the Tabernacle altar was distinctive and unlike the heathen altars in general use in Palestine and this appears to be confirmed by modern excavations which have revealed high places with altars quite unlike those contemplated by the Pentateuch. See HIGH PLACE.
3. The Altar till Solomon
In the subsequent history till the erection of Solomon's Temple attention need only be directed to the fact that a horned altar existed while the Ark was still housed in a tent. This is important for two reasons. It shows a historical period in which a horned altar existed at the religious capital side by side with a number of lay altars all over the country, and it negatives the suggestion of G. A. Smith (Jerusalem, II, 64) that the bare rock ec-Cakhra was used by Solomon as the altar, since the unhewn rock obviously could not provide a horned altar such as we find as early as 1Ki_1:50-53.
4. The Horned Altar in Use
Note too that we read here of bringing down from the altar, and this expression implies elevation. Further in 1Ki_9:25 we hear that Solomon was in the habit of offering on the altar which he had built, and this again proves that he had built an altar and did not merely use the temple rock. (See also Watson in PEFS (January, 1910), 15ff, in reply to Smith.)
5. The Temple of Solomon
For the reasons just given it is certain that Solomon used an altar of the horned type, but we have no account of the construction in Kings. According to a note preserved in the Septuagint but not in the Hebrew, Solomon enlarged the altar erected by David on Araunah's threshing-floor (2Sa_24:25), but this notice is of very doubtful historical value and may be merely a glossator's guess. According to 2Ch_4:1 the altar was made of bronze and was twenty cubits by twenty by ten. The Chronicler's dimensions are doubted by many, but the statement of the material is confirmed by 1Ki_8:64; 2Ki_16:10-15. From the latter passage it appears that an altar of bronze had been in use till the time of Ahaz.
6. The Altar of Ahaz
This king saw an altar in Damascus of a different pattern and had a great altar made for the temple on its model. As the text contrasts the great altar with the altar of bronze, we may refer that the altar of Ahaz was not made of bronze. Whether either or both of these altars had steps (compare Eze_43:17) or were approached by a slope as in Fig. 2 cannot be determined with certainty. It may be noted that in Isa_27:9 we read of the stones of the altar in a passage the reference of which is uncertain.
7. Ezekiel
Ezekiel also gives a description of an altar (Eze_43:13-17), but there is nothing to show whether it is purely ideal or represents the altar of Solomon or that of Ahaz, and modern writers take different views. In the vision it stood before the house (Eze_40:47). In addition he describes an altar or table of wood (Eze_41:22). This of course could only be a table, not in any sense an altar. See TABLE.
8. The Post-Exilic Altar
Ezr_3:2 f tells of the setting up of the altar by Zerubbabel and his contemporaries. No information as to its shape, etc., can be extracted from this notice. We read of a defilement of the temple altar in 1 Macc 1:54. This was made of stones (Exo_20:24-26 having at this date been applied to the temple altar contrary to its original intent) and a fresh altar of whole stones was constructed (1 Macc 4:44-49). Presumably this altar had no horns.
9. Idolatrous and Unlawful Altars
It is clear from the historical and prophetical books that in both kingdoms a number of unlawful altars were in use. The distinction which has been drawn between lay altars and horned altars helps to make these passages easy to understand. Thus when Amos in speaking of Bethel writes, ?The horns of the altar shall be cut off,? we see that he is not thinking of lay altars which could have no horns (Amo_3:14). Again Hosea's ?Because Ephraim hath multiplied altars 'to sin,' altars have been to him 'for sin'? (Hos_8:11, compare Hos_10:1-8; Hos_12:11 (12)), is not in contradiction to Exo_20:24-26 because the prophet is not speaking of lay altars. The high places of Jeroboam (1Ki_12:28-33) were clearly unlawful and their altars were unlawful altars of the horned type. Such cases must be clearly distinguished from the lay altars of Saul and others.
10. The Horns
The origin of the horns is unknown, though there are many theories. Fugitives caught hold of them (1Ki_1:50, 1Ki_1:51), and victims could be tied to them (Psa_118:27).
IV. Altars of Incense
Exo_30:1-10 contains the commands for the construction and use of an altar of incense. The material was shittim wood, the dimensions one cubit by one by two, and it also had horns. Its top and sides were overlaid with gold and it was surrounded by a crown or rim of gold. For facility of transport it had golden rings and staves. It stood before the veil in front of the ark.
Solomon also constructed an altar of incense (1Ki_6:20; 1Ki_7:48; 1Ch_28:18), cedar replacing shittim wood. The altar of incense reappears in 1 Macc 1:21; 4:49.
V. Recent Archaeological Materials
Recently several altars have been revealed by excavations. They throw light on the Bible chiefly by showing what is forbidden. See especially HIGH PLACE.
1. A Gezer Altar
Fig. 3 represents an altar found at Gezer built into the foundation of a wall dating about 600 bc. Mr. Macalister describes it in the following words: ?It is a four-sided block of limestone, 1 ft. 3 inches high. The top and bottom are approximately 10 1/2 and 9 inches square respectively; but these are only the average dimensions of the sides, which are not regularly cut. The angles are prolonged upward for an additional 1 1/2 inches as rounded knobs - no doubt the 'horns' of the altar. The top is very slightly concave so as to hold perhaps an eighth of a pint of liquid? (PEFS (July, 1907), 196 f). The size suggests an altar of incense rather than an altar of burnt offering, but in view of the general resemblance between the Tabernacle altars of burnt offering and incense, this is a fact of minor importance. On the other hand, the shape, pattern and material are of great interest. That the altar violates in principle the law of Exo_20:25 forbidding the dressing of the stones is obvious, though that passage does not apply in terms to altars of incense, but certainly the appearance of the block does recall in a general way the altars of the other type - the horned altars. Like them it is four-sided with a square top, and like them it has knobs or horns at each corner. Possibly it was formed in general imitation of the Temple altars.
Other altars in Canaanite high places exemplify by their appearance the practices prohibited by the Pentateuch. See for illustrations H. Vincent, Canaan d'apr?s l'exploration r?cente; R. Kittel, Studien zur hebraischen Archaologie und Religions-Geschichte; S. R. Driver, Modern Research as Illustrating the Bible.
2. The Taanach Altar of Incense
Importance attaches to a terra cotta altar of incense found by Sellin at Taanach, because its height and dimensions at the base recall the altar of Ex. ?It was just 3 ft. high, and in shape roughly like a truncated pyramid, the four sides at the bottom being each 18 inches long, and the whole ending at the top in a bowl a foot in diameter.... The altar is hollow.... Professor Sellin places the date of the altar at about 700 bc.... An incense-altar of exactly the same shape ... but of much smaller size ... has been found quite recently at Gezer in d?bris of about 1000-600 bc? (Driver, Modern Research, etc., 85). These discoveries supply a grim comment on theories of those critics who maintain that incense was not used by the Hebrews before the time of Jeremiah. The form of the altar itself is as contrary to the principles of the Pentateuch law as any thing could be.
On altar furniture see POT; SHOVEL; BASINS; FLESH-HOOK; FIREPAN. On the site, TEMPLE, and generally, ARIEL; SACRIFICE; SANCTUARY; TABERNACLE; HIGH PLACE.
Literature
R. Kittel, Studien zur hebraischen Archaologie und Religions-Geschichte, I and II; Hastings, Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics; Murray, Illustrated Bible Dictionary; EB, under the word ?Altar?; EPC, chapter 6. The discussions in the ordinary works of reference must be used with caution for the reason given in I above.

B. In Worship
I. In Worship: Tabernacle and Temples
1. Patriarchal Altars
2. Sacred Sites
3. Pre-Tabernacle Altars
II. The Altar of Burnt Offering (Brazen Altar)
1. Altar Before the Tabernacle
2. Its History
3. Altar of Solomon's Temple
4. Altar of Ezekiel's Temple
5. Altar of Second Temple
6. Altar of Herod's Temple
III. The Altar of Incense (Golden Altar)
1. In the Tabernacle
2. Mode of Burning Incense
3. In Solomon's Temple and Later
4. In Herod's Temple
5. Symbolism of Incense Burning
B. In Worship
I. In Worship: Tabernacle and Temples
In the literature of the Bible, sacrifices are prior to altars, and altars prior to sacred buildings. Their first mention is in the case of the altar built by Noah after the Flood (Gen_8:20).
1. Patriarchal Altars
The next is the altar built at the place of Shechem, by which Abraham formally took possession, on behalf of his descendants, of the whole land of Canaan (Gen_12:7). A second altar was built between Bethel and Ai (Gen_12:8). To this the patriarch returned on his way from Egypt (Gen_13:4). His next place of sacrifice was Hebron (Gen_13:18); and tradition still professes to show the place where his altar stood. A subsequent altar was built on the top of a mountain in the land of Moriah for the sacrifice of Isaac (Gen_22:9).
2. Sacred Sites
Each of these four spots was the scene of some special revelation of Yahweh; possibly to the third of them (Hebron) we may attribute the memorable vision and covenant of Gen 15. These sites became, in after years, the most venerated and coveted perquisites of the nation, and fights for their possession largely determined its history. To them Isaac added an altar at Beersheba (Gen_26:25), probably a re-erection, on the same site, of an altar built by Abraham, whose home for many years was at Beersheba. Jacob built no new altars, but again and again repaired those at Shechem and Bethel. On one occasion he offered a sacrifice on one of the mountains of Gilead, but without mention of an altar (Gen_31:54). There were thus four or five spots in Canaan associated at once with the worship of Yahweh, and the name of their great ancestor, which to Hebrews did not lose their sanctity by the passage of time, namely, Shechem, Bethel, Hebron, Moriah and Beersheba.
3. Pre-Tabernacle Altars
The earliest provision for an altar as a portion of a fixed establishment of religion is found in Exo_20:24-26, immediately after the promulgation of the Decalogue. Altars are commanded to be made of earth or of unhewn stone, yet so as to have, not steps, but only slopes for ascent to the same - the injunction implying that they stood on some elevation (see ALTAR, A, above). Before the arrival at Sinai, during the war with Amalek, Moses had built an emergency altar, to which he gave the name Yahweh-Nissi (Exo_17:15). This was probably only a memorial altar (compare the altar ד, 'Ed in Jos_22:21). At Sinai took place the great crisis in Israel's national history. It was required that the covenant about to be made with Yahweh should be ratified with sacrificial blood; but before Moses could sprinkle the Book of the Covenant and the people who covenanted (Exo_24:6, Exo_24:7; compare Heb_9:19), it was necessary that an altar should be built for the sacrificial act. This was done ?under the mount,? where, beside the altar, were reared twelve pillars, emblematic of the twelve tribes of Israel (Exo_24:4).
In connection with the tabernacle and the successive temples there were two altars - the Altar of Burnt Offering (the altar by pre?minence, Eze_43:13), and the Altar of Incense. Of these it is now necessary to speak more particularly.
II. The Altar of Burnt Offering (the Brazen Altar)
(מזבּח העולה, mizbaḥ hā-‛ōlāh), (מזבּח הנּחשׁת, mizbaḥ ha-neḥōsheth). - (By ?brass? throughout understand ?bronze.?)
1. Altar Before the Tabernacle
The altar which stood before the tabernacle was a portable box constructed of acacia wood and covered on the outside with plates of brass (Exo_27:1). ?Hollow with planks,? is its definition (Exo_27:8). It was five cubits long, five cubits broad, and three cubits high; on the ordinary reckoning, about 7 1/2 ft. on the horizontal square, and 4 1/2 ft. in height (possibly less; see CUBIT). On the ?grating of network of brass? described as around and half-way up the altar (Exo_20:4, Exo_20:5), see GRATING. Into the corners of this grating, on two sides, rings were riveted, into which the staves were inserted by which the Ark was borne (see STAVES). For its corner projections, see HORNS OF THE ALTAR. The prohibition of steps in Exo_20:26 and the analogy of later altars suggest that this small altar before the tabernacle was made to stand on a base or platform, led up to by a slope of earth. The right of sanctuary is mentioned in Exo_21:14. For the utensils connected with the altar, see PAN; SHOVEL; BASINS; FLESH-HOOK; CENSER. All these utensils were made of brass.
2. Its History
The history of the altar before the tabernacle was that of the tabernacle itself, as the two were not parted during its continuance (see TABERNACLE). Their abolition did not take place till Solomon's temple was ready for use, when the great high place at Gibeon (1Ki_3:4) was dismantled, and the tabernacle and its holy vessels were brought to the new temple (1Ki_8:4). Another altar had meanwhile been raised by David before the tabernacle he had made on Zion, into which the Ark of the Covenant was moved (1Ch_15:1; 1Ch_16:1). This would be a duplicate of that at Gibeon, and would share its supersession at the erection of the first temple.
3. Altar of Solomon's Temple
In Solomon's temple the altar was considerably enlarged, as was to be expected from the greater size of the building before which it stood. We are indebted to the Chronicler for its exact dimensions (2Ch_4:1). It formed a square of twenty cubits, with an elevation of ten cubits (30 x 30 x 15 ft.; or somewhat less). It is described as ?an altar of brass? (2Ch_4:1), or ?brazen altar? (1Ki_8:64; 2Ch_7:7; compare 2Ki_16:14), either as being, like its predecessors, encased in brass, or, as others think, made wholly of brass. It was not meant to be portable, but that the altar itself was movable is shown by the fact of Ahaz having it removed (2Ki_16:14). Further details of its structure are not given. The altar stood in ?the middle of the court that was before the house,? but proved too small to receive the gifts on the day of the temple's dedication (1Ki_8:64; 2Ch_7:7). It remained, however, the center of Israelite worship for 2 1/2 centuries, till Ahaz removed it from the forefront of the house, and placed it on the northern side of is Damascene altar (2Ki_16:14). This indignity was repaired by Hezekiah (compare 2Ki_18:22), and the altar assumed its old place in the temple service till its destruction by Nebuchadnezzar in 586 bc.
4. Altar of Ezekiel's Temple
The altar of Ezekiel's ideal temple was, as planned, a most elaborate structure, the cubit used for this purpose being that of ?a cubit and an handbreadth? (Eze_43:13), or the large cubit of history (see CUBIT). The paragraph describing it (Eze_43:13-17) is very specific, though uncertainty rests on the meaning of some of the details. The altar consisted of four stages lying one above another, gradually diminishing in size till the hearth was reached upon which the fire was literal. This was a square of twelve cubits (18 ft.), from the corners of which 4 horns projected upward (Eze_43:15). The base or lowest stage was one cubit in height, and had a border round about, half a cubit high (Eze_43:13); the remaining stages were two, four, and four cubits high respectively (Eze_43:14, Eze_43:15); the horns may have measured another cubit (thus, the Septuagint). Each stage was marked by the inlet of one cubit (Eze_43:13, Eze_43:14). The basement was thus, apparently, a square of eighteen cubits or 27 ft. The word ?bottom? (literally, ?bosom?) in Ezekiel's description is variously interpreted, some regarding it as a ?drain? for carrying off the sacrificial blood, others identifying it with the ?basement.? On its eastern face the altar had steps looking toward the east (Eze_43:17) - a departure from the earlier practice (for the reason of this, compare Perowne's article ?Altar? in Smith, Dictionary of the Bible).
5. Altar of Second Temple
Of the altar of the second temple no measurements are given. It is told only that it was built prior to the temple, and was set upon its base (Ezr_3:3), presumably on the Cakhra stone - the ancient site.
6. Altar of Herod's Temple
In Herod's temple a difficulty is found in harmonizing the accounts of the Mishna and Josephus as to the size of the altar. The latter gives it as a square of fifty cubits (BJ, V, v, 6). The key to the solution probably lies in distinguishing between the structure of the altar proper (thirty-two cubits square), and a platform of larger area (fifty cubits square = 75 ft.) on which it stood. When it is remembered that the Ṣakhra stone is 56 ft in length and 42 ft. in width, it is easy to see that it might form a portion of a platform built up above and around it to a level of this size. The altar, like that of Ezekiel's plan, was built in diminishing stages; in the Mishna, one of one cubit, and three of five cubits in height, the topmost stage measuring twenty-six cubits square, or, with deduction of a cubit for the officiating priests, twenty-four cubits. Josephus, on the other hand, gives the height at fifteen cubits. The altar, as before, had four horns. Both Josephus and the Mishna state that the altar was built of unhewn stones. The ascent, thirty-two cubits long and sixteen broad, likewise of unhewn stone, was on the south side. See further, TEMPLE, HEROD'S. It is of this altar that the words were spoken, ?Leave there thy gift before the altar, and go thy way, first be reconciled to thy brother, and then come and offer thy gift? (Mat_5:24).
III. The Altar of Incense (Golden Altar)
(מזבּח הקּטרת, mizbaḥ ha-ḳeṭōreth), (מזבּח הזּהב, mizbaḥ ha-zāhābh).
1. In the Tabernacle
This was a diminutive table of acacia overlaid with gold, the upper surface of which was a square of one cubit, and its height two cubits, with an elevated cornice or crown around its top (Exo_30:2). Like the great altar of burnt offering, it was in the category of ?most holy? things (Exo_30:10); a distinction which gave it a right to a place in the inner room of the cella or holy of holies. Hence, in 1Ki_6:22, it is said to ?belong to the oracle,? and in Heb_9:4 that chamber is said to have the ?altar of incense.? It did not, however, actually stand there, but in the outer chamber, ?before the veil? (Exo_40:26). The reason for this departure from the strict rule of temple ritual was that sweet incense was to be burnt daily upon it at the offering of every daily sacrifice, the lamps being then lit and extinguished (compare Num_28:3 f; Exo_30:7, Exo_30:8), so that a cloud of smoke might fill the inner chamber at the moment when the sacrificial blood was sprinkled (see MERCY-SEAT). To have burnt this incense within the veil would have required repeated entries into the holy of holies, which entries were forbidden (Lev_16:2). The altar thus stood immediately without the veil, and the smoke of the incense burnt upon it entered the inner chamber by the openings above the veil. For the material construction which admitted of this, see HOLY PLACE.
For other uses of the altar of incense see HORNS OF THE ALTAR, where it is shown that at the time of the offerings of special sin offerings and on the day of the annual fast its horns were sprinkled with blood. This, with the offering of incense upon it, were its only uses, as neither meal offerings might be laid upon it, nor libations of drink offerings poured thereon (Exo_30:9). The Tāmı̄d, or standing sacrifice for Israel, was a whole burnt offering of a lamb offered twice daily with its meal offering, accompanied with a service of incense.
2. Mode of Burning Incense
It is probable that the censers in use at the time of the construction of this altar and after were in shape like a spoon or ladle (see TABLE OF SHEWBREAD), which, when filled with live coals from the great altar, were carried within the sanctuary and laid upon the altar of incense (Lev_16:12). The incense-sticks, broken small, were then placed upon the coals. The narrative of the deaths of Aaron's sons, Nadab and Abihu, is thus made intelligible, the fire in their censers not having been taken from the great altar.
3. In Solomon's Temple and Later
The original small altar made by Moses was superseded by one made by Solomon. This was made of cedar wood, overlaid with gold (1Ki_6:20, 1Ki_6:22; 1Ki_7:48; 1Ki_9:25; 2Ch_4:19); hence, was called the ?golden altar.? This was among ?all the vessels of the house of God, great and small,? which Nebuchadnezzar took to Babylon (2Ch_36:18). As a consequence, when Ezekiel drew plans for a new temple, he gave it an incense altar made wholly of wood and of larger dimensions than before (Eze_41:22). It had a height of three cubits and a top of two cubits square. There was an incense altar likewise in the second temple. It was this altar, probably plated with gold, which Antiochus Epiphanes removed (1 Macc 1:21), and which was restored by Judas Maccabeus (1 Macc 4:49). (On critical doubts as to the existence of the golden altar in the first and second temples, compare POT, 323.)
4. In Herod's Temple
That the Herodian temple also had its altar of incense we know from the incident of Zacharias having a vision there of ?an angel ... standing on the right side of the altar of incense? when he went into the temple of the Lord to burn incense (Luk_1:11). No representation of such an altar appears on the arch of Titus, though it is mentioned by Josephus (BJ, V, v, 5). It was probably melted down by John during the course of the siege (V, xiii, 6).
5. Symbolism of Incense Burning
In the apocalypse of John, no temple was in the restored heaven and earth (Rev_21:22), but in the earlier part of the vision was a temple (Rev_14:17; Rev_15:6) with an altar and a censer (Rev_8:3). It is described as ?the golden altar which was before the throne,? and, with the smoke of its incense, there went up before God the prayers of the saints. This imagery is in harmony with the statement of Luke that as the priests burnt incense, ?the whole multitude of the people were praying without at the hour of incense? (Luk_1:10). Both history and prophecy thus attest the abiding truth that salvation is by sacrificial blood, and is made available to men through the prayers of saints and sinners offered by a great High Priest.
International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
PRINTER 1915.

The first altar we read of in the Bible was that erected by Noah on leaving the ark. Mention is made of altars erected by Abraham (Gen_12:7; Gen_13:4; Gen_22:9); by Isaac (Gen_26:25); by Jacob (Gen_33:20; Gen_35:1; Gen_35:3); by Moses (Exo_17:15). After the giving of the law, the Israelites were commanded to make an altar of earth; they were also permitted to employ stones, but no iron tool was to be applied to them. This has been generally understood as an interdiction of sculpture, in order to guard against a violation of the second commandment. Altars were frequently built on high places. Thus Solomon built an high place for Chemosh (1Ki_11:7), and Josiah brake down and burned the high place, and stamped it small to powder (2Ki_23:15). This practice, however, was forbidden by the Mosaic law (Deu_12:13; Deu_16:5), except in particular instances, such as those of Gideon (Jdg_6:26) and David (2Sa_24:18). It is said of Solomon 'that he loved the Lord, walking in the statutes of David, his father, only he sacrificed the burnt incense on the high places' (1Ki_3:3). Altars were sometimes built on the roofs of houses: in 2Ki_23:12, we read of the altars that were on the top of the upper chamber of Ahaz. In the tabernacle, and afterwards in the temple, two altars were erected, one for sacrifices, the other for incense: the table for the shew-bread is also sometimes called an altar.
1. The altar of burnt-offering belonging to the tabernacle was a hollow square, five cubits in length and breadth, and three cubits in height; it was made of Shittim-wood [SHITTIM], and overlaid with plates of brass. In the middle there was a ledge or projection, on which the priest stood while officiating; immediately below this, a brass grating was let down into the altar to support the fire, with four rings attached, through which poles were passed, when the altar was removed. As the priests were forbidden to go up by steps to the altar (Exo_20:26), a slope of earth was probably made rising to a level with the ledge.
In Exo_27:3, the following utensils are mentioned as belonging to the altar, all of which were to be made of brass. (1) pans or dishes to receive the ashes that fell through the grating. (2) shovels for cleaning the altar. (3) vessels for receiving the blood and sprinkling it on the altar. (4) large forks to turn the pieces of flesh or to take them off the fire (see 1Sa_2:13). (5) 'fire-pans;' the same word is elsewhere translated censers, Num_16:17; but in Exo_25:38, 'snuff-dishes.'
2. The altar of burnt-offering in Solomon's temple was of much larger dimensions, 'twenty cubits in length and breadth, and ten in height' (2Ch_4:1), and was made entirely of brass. It is said of Asa that he renewed, that is, either repaired (in which sense the word is evidently used in 2Ch_24:4) or reconsecrated the altar of the Lord that was before the porch of the Lord (2Ch_15:8). This altar was removed by king Ahaz (2Ki_16:14); it was 'cleansed' by Hezekiah; and in the latter part of Manasseh's reign was rebuilt.
3. Of the altar of burnt-offering in the second temple, the canonical scriptures give us no information excepting that it was erected before the foundations of the temple were laid (Ezr_3:3; Ezr_3:6) on the same place where it had formerly been built. From the Apocrypha, however, we may infer that it was made, not of brass, but of unhewn stone.
4. The altar of burnt-offering erected by Herod is thus described by Josephus: 'Before this temple stood the altar, fifteen cubits high, and equal both in length and breadth, each of which dimensions was fifty cubits. The figure it was built in was a square, and it had corners like horns, and the passage up to it was by an insensible acclivity from the south. It was formed without any iron tool, nor did any iron tool so much as touch it at any time.' The dimensions of this altar, however, are differently stated in the Mishna. On the south side was an inclined plane, 32 cubits long and 16 cubits broad, made likewise of unhewn stones. A pipe was connected with the south-west horn, through which the blood of the victims was discharged by a subterraneous passage into the brook Kedron. Under the altar was a cavity to receive the drink-offerings, which was covered with a marble slab, and cleansed from time to time. On the north side of the altar several iron rings were fixed to fasten the victims. Lastly, a red line was drawn round the middle of the altar to distinguish between the blood that was to be sprinkled above and below it.
II. The second altar belonging to the Jewish worship was the altar of incense, called also the golden altar (Num_4:11). It was placed between the table of shew-bread and the golden candlestick, in the most holy place.
1. This altar in the tabernacle was made of Shittim-wood overlaid with gold plates, one cubit in length and breadth, and two cubits in height. It had horns (Lev_4:7) of the same materials; and round the flat surface was a border of gold, underneath which were the rings to receive 'the staves made of Shittim-wood, overlaid with gold to bear it withal' (Exo_30:1-5).
2. The altar in Solomon's Temple was similar, but made of cedar (1Ki_6:20; 1Ki_7:48; 1Ch_28:18) overlaid with gold.
3. The altar in the second temple was taken away by Antiochus Epiphanes (1Ma_1:21), and restored by Judas Maccabaeus (1Ma_4:49). On the arch of Titus there appears no altar of incense.
The Popular Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature
by John Kitto.

Earthen Exo_20:24 (c) This altar may represent the Cross of Calvary on which JESUS as the Lamb of GOD died for those who break the holy law of GOD. Immediately after giving the Ten Commandments, the Lord requested that this altar be built at once. He knew that His laws would be broken, He knew that men would need a sacrifice for their sins; He therefore planned that this altar should be built at once so that men could have a way of forgiveness and salvation immediately. It is called an altar of earth because it belongs strictly to this earth. GOD makes no provision for forgiveness and salvation after death. No sacrifice of any kind is available to the lost sinner after he dies. There is no altar in hell.

Stone Exo_20:25 (c) This altar is to be made of stone to indicate that it is permanent, substantial, solid and cannot be tampered with by man. No tool was to be used in the making of it. Stones are made by GOD. It is a picture of Calvary which was GOD's institution. He planned it, He designed that JESUS was to die there. It must not be tampered with by man. Its blessings are eternal. Calvary came from the heart of GOD through the ages of eternity.

Brazen Exo_27:1-2 (c) This may be taken as a type of the cross of Calvary, where the Lamb of GOD was offered as a sacrifice for original sin, and a sacrifice for sins committed, and also as a sacrifice for our own wicked selves. CHRIST must die for our character, as well as our conduct. On that altar, the animal represented the Saviour who died both for us and for our sins. He died for what we are as burnt offering. He died for our deeds as the trespass offering.

Golden Exo_30:1-3 (c) This altar represents the Cross of CHRIST where the beautiful and perfect life of CHRIST was offered up to GOD as a sweet perfume and fragrant incense. The life of CHRIST which was perfect was offered to GOD instead of our lives which are so imperfect. It is typical also of the consecrated life of the believer from which there ascends to GOD as a sweet odor the sacrifices of our lips in thanksgiving, worship and praise.

Idol 1Ki_18:26 (c) Here we may think of a false altar which is a type of the religious plans and schemes of men wherein they hope to appease the god of their imagination, and to obtain his favor even though what they are doing is not Scriptural.

False 2Ki_16:10 (c) Here and elsewhere we find altars built ostensibly for the worship of GOD, but really for the worship of idols. These false altars are symbolical for the world's religious schemes and plans under the name of Christianity. Worldly men devise worldly plans for the worship of those who live in their sins, and yet seek a religious outlet for their feelings. Every false religion has an "altar" of this kind.

Deserted Psa_84:3 (c) Here is brought before us clearly that GOD's people had forsaken both the worship and the service of the Lord to such an extent that the fires had gone out, the altar was cold, and no priest was near. The birds felt so much at home around these altars that they built their nests where the priests should have been serving, and the fires should have been burning.

Christian Mat_5:23 (b) This probably teaches us that there is a place of worship called "the altar" to which the believer goes for worship, praise and prayer. It may be in the church building or in the home. When we come to this hallowed place, we are to come with a heart that is open and free from bitterness, free from spite, and free from grudges. We are to be a forgiving people if we expect forgiveness from Heaven.

Unknown Act_17:23 (a) This altar is probably typical of the false faiths by which people go through the motions of seeking and worshipping GOD, though their words and actions indicate clearly that they do not know Him, nor His character, nor His ways.

Heb_13:10 (a) The word here probably represents the Lord's table, and all the holy associations which accompany the Gospel of CHRIST.

Rev_8:3 (c) From this we learn that in some mysterious way there is such an altar in Heaven. At that altar the fragrant incense of the prayers and the worship of Christians ascends to GOD and permeates Heaven.
Wilson's Dictionary of Bible Types
press 1957.

Altar
(מִזְבֵּחִ, mizbe'ach, from זָבִח, to slay in sacrifice; βωμός), a structure on which sacrifices of any kind are offered. In ancient times this was always done by slaughter or by fire. The term is borrowed in modern times to signify a table or other erection in a church on which the sacraments are administered, or near which prayer is offered and other religious exercises performed (comp. Hebrew 13:10). They were originally of earth (Exo_20:24; comp. Lucan. 9:988; Horace, Odes, 3, 8, 4; Ovid, Metam. 4, 752; Trist. 5, 5, 9; Pliny, 4, 4) or unwrought stone (Exo_20:25), erected on such spots as had been early held sacred (Gen_12:7 sq.; Gen_13:18; Gen_26:25; Gen_35:1; Exo_17:15; Exo_24:4 sq.), especially hill- tops and eminences (Gen_22:9; Eze_18:6; comp. Herodotus 1:131; Homer, Iliad, 22, 171; Apollon. Rhod. 524; Livy, 21:38; Philostr. Apol. 1, 2), also house-tops (2Ki_23:12), as being nearer the sky (Tacit. Anal. 13, 57; Philostr. Apol. 2, 5); occasionally under remarkable trees (2Ki_16:4). See Smith's Dict. of Class. Antiq. s.v. Ara; Selden, Synedr. 3, 260 sq.; Jahn, Archaol. pt. 3, c. 2, 5; Bahr, Symbolik, 1, 157, 233; Lakemacher, Antiq. Graec. sacr. p. 221 sq. The stone altars erected to the true God (Jos_8:31; 1Ki_18:31; 1Sa_6:14) were imitated by the Gentiles, as appears from Pausanias (6, 382), where he mentions "an altar of white stone," and Apollonius Rhodius, in speaking of the temple of Mars (Argon. 2). Altars were generally erected at the gates of the city (2Ki_23:8). We may refer to this Act_14:13, where the priest of Jupiter is said to have brought filleted oxen to the gates to perform sacrifice. An altar, both among the Jews and the heathen, was an asylum, a sanctuary, for such persons as fled to it for refuge (Exo_21:14; 1Ki_1:50; 1Ki_2:28, etc.). As to the practice of the heathen in this respect, all the Greek writers are more or less copious. SEE HORNS.
Heb_13:10, “We have an altar," etc., Macknight explains thus: "Here, by a usual metonymy, the altar is put for the sacrifice, as is plain from the apostle's adding ‘of which they have no right to eat.' This is the sacrifice which Christ offered for the sins of the world;: and the eating of it does not mean corporeal eating, but the partaking of the pardon which Christ, by that sacrifice, had procured for sinners" (comp. Olshau. sen, Comment. in loc.). SEE LORD'S SUPPER.
One wooden table was wont to be placed in the midst of every meeting- place of the primitive Christians, upon which each of them laid what he bestowed for the use of the poor, as we are informed by Theodoret (5, 18; see Heb_12:16); and because alms are noted with the name of sacrifice, that table upon which they were laid was called by the ancient Christians an altar. SEE SACRIFICE.
I. Pagan. — There is a strong probability that some of those ancient monuments of unhewn stone, usually called Druidical remains, which are found in all parts of the world, were derived from the altars of primitive times. SEE STONE. These are various in their forms, and their peculiar uses have been very much disputed. (See Penny Cyclopoedia, s.v. Avebury, Carnac, Stonehenge.) Dr. Kitto has elaborately examined the subject (Pict. Hist. of Palest. append. to bk. 3, ch. 3 and 4), and comes to the conclusion that the cromlechs are representatives of ancient altars, while the kistvaens, or stones disposed in a chest-like form, are analogous to the arks of Jewish and Egyptian worship, SEE ARK, and are remnants of the so-called arkite traditions. SEE FLOOD.
Cromlechs are somewhat in the form of a table, one large stone being supported in a horizontal or slightly inclined position upon three or more, but usually three stones, set upright. That they were used as altars is almost instinctively suggested to every one that views them; and this conclusion is strengthened when, as is often the case, we observe a small circular hole through which probably the rope was run by which the victims, when slaughtered, were bound to the altar, as they were to the angular projections or “horns" of the Jewish altar (Psalm 123:27). It was natural that when a sufficiency of large stones could not be found, heaps of smaller ones should be employed, and that, when practicable, a large flat stone would be placed on the top, to give a proper level for the fire and the sacrifice. Such are the cairns of altar-like form, many of which still remain; but as they are sometimes found in places where stones of large size might have been obtained, it seems that in later times such altars had a special appropriation; and Toland shows (Hist. of Brit. Druids, p. 101) that the sacred fires were burned on them, and sacrifices offered to Bel, Baal, the Sun. In many instances, as at Stonehenge, a circle of stones is ranged around a central one in an amphitheatrical manner, an arrangement which has been found to take place likewise even in Persia, as at Darab (Ouseley's Travels, 2, 124). Caesar refers to such consecrated circles for national deliberation among the Gauls (Bell. Gall. 6), and Homer alludes to Grecian councils held within circles of stones (Il. 18, 585; comp. Od. 8, 5). The following, figured from Ouseley (Travels in Persia, 2, 80-83), was called by the natives “Stone of the Fire Temple," and is surrounded by a low wall. It is ten or eleven feet high, and about three square. Two sides contain an inscription, in Pehlvi, within a sunken circle. There is a small cavity on the top, as if to contain fire. The pyramids (q.v.) of Egypt may likewise have been originally sites of worship.
Passing by the early and rude forms of altars still extant of the Mexican worship, since too little is known of the history and application of these to illustrate our subject in any definite manner, we notice those of Egypt as being first both in point of aptness and antiquity. The first of the accompanying specimens is of a purely Egyptian character, and is taken from the representations of sacrifice upon the monuments.
Among the ancient Egyptian pictures that have been discovered at Herculaneum are two of a very curious description, representing sacred ceremonies of the Egyptians, probably in honor of His. In one the scene is in the area before a temple (as usual); the congregation is numerous, the music various, and the priests engaged are at least nine persons. The temple is raised, and an ascent of eleven steps leads up to it. In the entire painting, of the. birds or ibises one is lying down at ease, another is standing up without fear or apprehension; a third, perched-on some paling, is looking over the heads of the people; and a fourth is standing on the back of a Sphinx, nearly adjacent to the temple, in the front of it. It deserves notice that this altar (and the other also) has at each of its four corners a rising, which continues square to about half its height, but from thence is gradually sloped off to an edge or a point. These are no doubt the horns of the altar, and probably this is their true figure (see Exo_27:2, etc.; Exo_29:12; Eze_43:15). The priest is blowing up the fire, apparently with a fan, so as to avoid the pollution of the breath. The other figure, which we give more in full, shows the horns of the altar, formed on the same principle as the foregoing; but this is seen on its angle, and its general form is more elevated. It has no garlands, and perfumes appear to be burning on it. In this picture the assembly is not so numerous as in the other; but almost all, to the number of ten or a dozen persons, are playing on musical instruments.
The idolaters in the first ages of the world, who generally worshipped the sun, appear to have thought it improper to confine the supposed infinity of this imaginary deity within walls, and therefore they generally made choice of woods and mountains, as the most convenient places for their idolatry; and when, in later times, they had brought in the use of temples, yet for a long time they kept them open-roofed. With such a form of worship notions of gloomy sublimity were associated, and so prevalent was the custom, that the phrase "worshipping on high places," is frequently used to signify idolatry in the Old Testament. The worshipping on high-places was strictly forbidden to the Jews; not merely because the custom had a tendency to produce idolatry, but also because the customary form of that idolatry was the worst, the most cruel, and the most debasing. SEE HIGH- PLACE. It was before these altars, in groves and mountains, that human sacrifices were most frequently offered, that parents whose natural affections were blighted and destroyed by dark superstitions made their children pass through the fire to Moloch; and it was in such places that licentiousness and depravity were systematically made a part of public worship. SEE IDOLATRY. It does not appear from the monuments that altars on high-places were common in Egypt, though there are some traces of worship in groves. SEE ASHERAH.
The heathens at first made their altars only of turf, afterward of stone, marble, wood, and other materials. They differed in form as well as material, some being round, some square, and others triangular. All their altars turned toward the east, and stood lower than the statue of the god, and were adorned with sculptures representing the deity to whom erected, or the appropriate symbols. These altars were of two kinds, the higher and the lower; the higher were intended for the celestial gods, and were called by the Romans altaria; the lower were for the terrestrial and infernal gods, and were called aroe. Those dedicated to the heavenly gods were raised a great height above the ground; those of the terrestrial gods were almost even with the surface, and those for the infernal deities were only holes dug in the ground, called scrobiculi. Most of the ancient Greek altars were of a cubical form; and hence, when the oracle of Apollo at Delphi commanded that a new altar should be prepared exactly double the size of that which already stood in the temple, a problem was given surpassing the powers of science in those days, which is well known to mathematicians under the name of the duplication of the cube. The great temples of Rome generally contained three altars; the first, in the sanctuary at the foot of the statue, for incense and libations; the second, before the gate of the temple, for the sacrifice of victims; and the third, like the table of shewbread, was a portable one for the offerings and vessels to lie upon.
The ALTAR AT ATHENS, inscribed “to the unknown God." — Paul, discoursing in that city on the resurrection of the dead, was carried by some of the philosophers before the judges of the Areopagus, where he uses this expression (Act_17:22-23): "Ye men of Athens, I perceive that in all things ye are too superstitious" (over-fond of gods); "for as I passed by, and beheld your sacred instruments, I found an altar with this inscription, 'To the unknown god;' him, therefore, whom ye worship as 'unknown,' him declare" (represent, announce) “I unto you." The question is, What was this altar thus consecrated to the "unknown god?" Jerome says that it was inscribed “to the gods of Asia, Europe, and Africa — to the unknown and strange gods;" and that the apostle uses the singular form because his design was only to demonstrate to the Athenians that they adored an unknown god (Comment. ad Tit. 1, 12). Some, as Grotius, Vossius, Beza, believe that Paul speaks of altars extant in several places of Attica, without any inscription, erected after a solemn expiation for the country, by the philosopher Epimenides (Diog. Laert. Vit. Epim. 1, 29). Others conceive that this altar was the one mentioned by Pausanias (1, 1) and Philostratus (Vit. Revelation 6, 3), who speak of altars at Athens consecrated “to the unknown gods." Lucian (Philopatr. § 9) swears "by the unknown god at Athens." He adds, “Being come to Athens, and finding there the unknown god, we worshipped him, and gave thanks to him, with hands lifted up to heaven" (but see Niemeyer, Interp. Orat. Pauli in Areop. hab.). Peter Comestor relates that Dionysius the Areopagite, observing while he was at Alexandria the eclipse which, contrary to nature, happened at the death of our Savior, from thence concluded that some unknown god suffered; and not being then in a situation to learn more of the matter, he erected at his return to Athens this altar “to the unknown god," which gave occasion to Paul's discourse at the Areopagus. Theophylact, OEcumenius, and others, give a different account of its origin and design, but each of their opinions, as also those we have noticed, has its difficulties. Augustine had no doubt that the Athenians, under the appellation of the unknown God, really worshipped the true one (comp. Hales, Analysis, 3, 519-531). SEE ATHENS.
The most probable appears to be the conjecture of Eichhorn (Allgem. Biblioth. 3, 414), to which Niemeyer subscribes, that there were standing at Athens several very ancient altars, which had originally no inscription, and which were afterward not destroyed, for fear of provoking the anger of the gods to whom they had been dedicated, although it was no longer known who these gods were. He supposes, therefore, that the inscription ἀγνώστῳ Θεῷ, to an [some] unknown God, was placed upon them; and that one of these altars was seen by the apostle, who, not knowing that there were others, spoke accordingly. To this we may add the notion of Kuinol (Comment. in loc.), who considers it proved that there were several altars at Athens on which the inscription was written in the plural number, and believes that there was also one altar with the inscription in the singular, although the fact has been recorded by no other writer; for no argument can be drawn from this silence to the discredit of a writer, like Paul, of unimpeached integrity. The altar in question, he thinks, had probably been dedicated ἀγνώστῳ Θεῷ on account of some remarkable benefit received, which seemed attributable to some God, although it was uncertain to whom. SEE UNKNOWN GOD.
So much at least is certain, both from Paul's assertion and the testimony of Greek profane writers, that altars to an unknown god or gods existed at Athens. But the attempt to ascertain definitely whom the Athenians worshipped under this appellation must ever remain fruitless for want of sufficient data. The inscription afforded to Paul a happy occasion of proclaiming the Gospel; and those who embraced it found indeed that the Being whom they had thus “ignorantly worshipped" was the one only living and true God (Lardner's Works, 7, 319-321). SEE PAUL.
II. Jewish. — Cain and Abel appear to have worshipped at some primitive form of altar (Gen_4:3-4); but the first altar we read of in the Bible was that erected by Noah on leaving the ark. According to a rabbinical legend, it was partly formed from the remains of one built by Adam on his expulsion from Paradise, and afterward used by Cain and Abel, on the identical spot where Abraham prepared to offer up Isaac (Zohar, 51:3, 4; Jonathan's Targum, 9:20; 22:29). Mention is made of altars erected by Abraham (Gen_12:7; Gen_13:4; Gen_22:9); by Isaac (Gen_26:25); by Jacob (Gen_33:20; Gen_35:1; Gen_35:3); by Moses (Exo_17:15). After the giving of the law, the Israelites were commanded to make an altar of earth; they were also permitted to employ stones, but no iron tool was to be applied to them. This has been generally understood as an interdiction of sculpture, in order to guard against a violation of the second commandment. Altars were frequently built on high places (q.v.), the word being used not only for the elevated spots, but for the sacrificial structures upon them (Creuzer, Symbol. 1, 159; Gesenius, Comment. zu Jesa. 2, 282). Thus Solomon built a high-place for Chemosh (1Ki_11:7), and Josiah broke down and burnt the high-place, and stamped it small to powder (2Ki_23:15). Such structures, however, were forbidden by the Mosaic law (Deu_12:13; Deu_16:5), except in particular instances, such as those of Gideon (Jdg_6:26) and David (2Sa_24:18). It is said of Solomon that he “loved the Lord, walking in the statutes of David, his father, only he sacrificed and burnt incense on the high-places" (1Ki_3:3). Altars were sometimes built on the roofs of houses: in 2Ki_23:12, we read of the altars that were on the top of the upper chamber of Ahaz. In the tabernacle, and afterward in the temple, two altars were erected, one for sacrifices, the other for incense; the table for the shew-bread is also sometimes called an altar.
1. The ALTAR OF BURNT-OFFERING (מִזְבִּח הָעוֹלָה), Exo_30:28, or brazen altar (מִזְבִּח הִנְּחשֶׁת), Exo_39:39, called in Mal_1:7; Mal_1:12, "the table of the Lord," perhaps also in Eze_44:16. This differed in construction at different times.
(a.) In the tabernacle (Exodus 27, 38) this was a hollow square, five cubits in length and breadth, and three cubits in height; it was made of shittimwood, SEE SHITTIM, and overlaid with plates of brass. In the middle there was a ledge or projection (כִּרְכֹּב, karkob', Rosenmuller, deambulacrum), on which the priest stood while officiating; immediately below this a brass grating was let down into the altar to support the fire, with four rings attached, through which poles were passed when the altar was removed. Some critics have supposed that this grating was placed perpendicularly, and fastened to the outward edge of this projection, thus making the lower part of the altar larger than the upper. Others have imagined that it extended horizontally beyond the projection, in order to intercept the coals or portions of the sacrifice which might accidentally fall off the altar. To this effect is a statement by the Targumist Jonathan. But for such a purpose (as Bahr remarks, Symbol. 1, 480) a grating seems very unsuitable (comp. Josephus, Ant. 3, 6, 8). As the priests were forbidden to go up by steps to the altar (Exo_20:26; comp. Genesis 10, 15; Servius, ad AEn. 4, 646), a slope of earth was probably made rising to a level with the projection. According to the Jewish tradition, this was on the south side, which is not improbable; for on the east was “the place of the ashes" (Lev_1:16), and the laver of brass was probably near the western side, so that only the north and south sides were left (Eze_8:5). Those critics who suppose the grating to have been perpendicular or on the outside consider the injunction in Exo_20:24, as applicable to this altar, and that the inside was filled with earth; so that the boards of shittim-wood formed merely a case for the real altar. So Jarchi, on Exo_27:5. Its corners were ornamented with “horns" (Exo_29:12; Lev_4:18 sq.). SEE HORN.
In Exo_27:3, the following utensils are mentioned as belonging to the altar, all of which were to be made of brass.
1. סִירִוֹת, siroth', pans or dishes to receive the ashes (q.v.) that fell through the grating. 2. יִעִים, yaim', shovels (Vulg. forcipes), for cleaning the altar.
3. מִזְרָקוֹת, mizrakoth' (Auth. Vers. basins; Sept. φιάλαι; Gesenius, patera sacrifica), vessels for receiving the blood and sprinkling it on the altar.
4. מִזְלָגוֹת, mizlagoth' (Auth. Vers. "flesh-hooks;" Sept. κρεάγραι; Vulg. fuscinulke), large forks to turn the pieces of flesh, or to take them off the fire (see 1Sa_2:13).
5. מִחְתּוֹת, machtoth' (Auth. Vers. "firepans;" Sept. τὸ πυρεῖον); the same word is elsewhere translated censers (Num_16:17); but in Exo_25:38, "snuff-dishes;" Sept. ὑποθέματα. (Comp. Lamy, De Tabern. p. 439 sq.; Meyer, Bibeldeut. p. 201 sq.; Van Til, De Tabernac. p. 57.)
(b.) The altar of burnt-offerings in Solomon's temple was of much larger dimensions, “twenty cubits in length and breadth, and ten in height" (2Ch_4:1; comp. 1Ki_8:22; 1Ki_8:64; 1Ki_9:25), and was made entirely of brass, i.e. bronze plates covering a structure of earth or stone (Cramer, De Ara exter. p. 29 sq.). It is said of Asa that he renewed (חִדֵּשׁ), that is, either repaired (in which sense the word is evidently used in 2Ch_24:4) or reconstructed (Sept. ἐνεκαίνισε) the altar of the Lord that was before the porch of the Lord (2Ch_15:8). This altar was removed by King Ahaz (2Ki_16:14); it was "cleansed" by Hezekiah; and in the latter part of Manasseh's reign was rebuilt. It is not certain whether this was one of the sacred utensils which the Babylonians broke up and removed their materials (Jer_52:17 sq.).
(c.) Of the altar of burnt-offering in the second temple the canonical scriptures give us no information, excepting that it was erected before the foundations of the temple were laid (Ezr_3:3; Ezr_3:6), on the same place where it had formerly been built (Josephus, Ant. 11, 4, 1). From the Apocrypha, however, we may infer that it was made, not of brass, but of unhewn stone (comp. Spencer, Leg. rit. p. 418 sq.; Bahr, Symbol. 1, 489; Cramer, p. 32 sq.), for in the account of the restoration of the temple service by Judas Maccabeus, it is said, “They took whole stones, according to the law, and built a new altar according to the former" (1Ma_4:47). When Antiochus Epiphanes pillaged Jerusalem, Josephus informs us that he left the temple bare, and took away the golden candlesticks, and the golden altar (of incense), and table (of shew-bread), and the altar of burnt- offering (Ant. 12, 5, 4).
(d.) The altar of burnt-offering erected by Herod is thus described by Josephus (Wars, v. 5, 6): “Before this temple stood the altar, fifteen cubits high, and equal both in length and breadth, each of which dimensions was fifty cubits. The figure it was built in was a square, and it had corners like horns, and the passage up to it was by an insensible acclivity from the south. It was formed without any iron tool, nor did any iron tool so much as touch it at any time." The dimensions of this altar are differently stated in the Mishna (Middoth, 3, 1). It is there described as a square 32 cubits at the base; at the height of a cubit it is reduced 1 cubit each way, making it 30 cubits square; at 5 cubits higher it is similarly contracted, becoming 28 cubits square, and at the base of the horns 26 cubits; and, allowing a cubit each way for the deambulacrum, a square of 24 cubits is left for the fire on the altar. Other Jewish writers place the deambulacrum 2 feet below the surface of the altar, which would certainly be a more suitable construction. The Mishna states, in accordance with Josephus, that the stones of the altar were unhewn, agreeably to the command in Exo_20:25; and that they were whitewashed every year at the Passover and the feast of tabernacles. On the south side was an inclined plane, 32 cubits long and 16 cubits broad, made likewise of unhewn stones. A pipe was connected with the south-west horn, through which the blood of the victims was discharged by a subterraneous passage into the brook Kedron. Under the altar was a cavity to receive the drink-offerings, which was covered with a marble slab, and cleansed from time to time. On the north side of the altar several iron rings were fixed to fasten the victims. Lastly, a red line was drawn round the middle of the altar to distinguish between the blood that was to be sprinkled above and below it (Reland, Antiq. Sacr. p. 97 sq.; Lamy, De Tabernac. table 16; L'Empereur, in the Mishna, in loc.; Cramer, De Ara exteriore Templi secundi, Lugd. Bat. 1697, and in Ugolini Thesaur. 10; Ugolini Altare exter. in his Thesaur. 10; Otho, Lex. Rabb. p. 32 sq.).
According to Lev_6:6, the fire on the altar of burnt-offerings was not permitted to go out (Buxtorf, Historia ignis sacri, in his Exercit. p. 288 sq.; and in Ugolini Thesaur. 10; Horeb, De igne Sacro, in Ugolini Thesaur. 32; Bohn, De igne Gentilium sacro in Israel. sacra injurio, in Ugolini Thesaur. 10; comp. Deyling, Observ. 2, 164 sq.; 5, 47 sq.; Carpzov, Appar. p. 286; Schacht, Animadv. ad Iken. p. 293; Rosenmuller, Morgenl. 2, 156 sq.; Spanheim, De Vesta et Prytaneis Groec. in Graevii Thesaur. 5, 660 sq.; Hyde, Relig. vet. Pers. 8), as having originally fallen from heaven (Lev_9:24; πῦρ οὐρανοπετές, comp. Curt. 3, 3; Ammian. Marcel. 23:6; Pausan. 5, 15, 5; 8:9, 1; Plutarch, Numa, 9; Solin. 5; Serv. ad AEn. 12, 200; Val. Max. 1:1, 7; Zendavesta, 3, 237), and, according to the rabbinical traditions, renewed in like manner on several occasions (Gemara, Yoma, 21; Zebach, 61,2; 2Ma_1:19 sq.; comp. Van Dale, De Idolatr. c. 8, p. 149 sq.). SEE BURNT-OFFERING.
2. The second altar belonging to the Jewish Cultus was the ALTAR OF INCENSE ( מִזְבִּח הִקְּטֹרֶתand מִקְטִר קְטֹרֶת, Exo_30:1; Sept. θυσιαστήριον θυμιάματος), called also the golden altar (מִזְבִּח הִזָּהָב, Exo_29:38; Num_4:11) to distinguish it from the altar of burnt-offering, which was of less costly materials (Exo_38:30). Probably this is meant by the “altar of wood" spoken of in Eze_41:22, which is further described as the "table that is before the Lord," an expression precisely suitable to the altar of incense (see Delitzsch, Brief an die Hebr. p. 678). The name מִזְבֵּחִ, "altar," was not strictly appropriate, as no sacrifices were offered upon it; but once in the year, on the great day of atonement, the high-priest sprinkled upon the horns of it the blood of the sin-offering (Exo_30:10). It was placed between the table of shew- bread and the golden candlestick (Lev_16:18), i.e. in the holy place, "before the vail that is by the ark of the testimony" (Exo_30:6; Exo_40:5). Philo, too, speaks of it as "within the first vail," and as standing between the candlestick and the table of shew-bread. In apparent contradiction to this, the author of the Epistle to the Hebrew enumerates it among the objects which were within the second vail, i.e. in the Holy of Holies. It is true that by θυμιατήριον in this passage may be meant “a censer," in accordance with the usage of the Sept., but it is better understood of the altar of incense, which by Philo and other Hellenists is called θυμιατήριον. It is remarkable also that in 1Ki_6:22, this same altar is said to belong to "the oracle" (הִמִּזְבֵּחִ אֲשֶׁר לִדְּבִיר), or most holy place. This may perhaps be accounted for by the great typical and symbolical importance attached to this altar, so that it might be considered to belong to the “second tabernacle." (See Bleek on Hebrew 9:4, and Delitzsch, in loc.)
(a.) This altar in the tabernacle was made of shittim-wood overlaid with gold plates, and was one cubit in length and breadth, and two cubits in height. It had horns (Lev_4:7) of the same materials; and round the flat surface (גָּג, gag, “top") was a border (זֵר, zer, Auth. Vers. “crown;" Sept. στρεπτὴν στεφάνην) of gold, underneath which were the rings to receive “the staves (בִּדִּים, baddim', parts; Sept. σκυτάλαι) made of shittim-wood overlaid with gold, to bear it withal" (Exo_30:1-5; Josephus, Ant. 3, 6, 8).
(b.) The altar in Solomon's temple was similar, but made of cedar (1Ki_6:20; 1Ki_7:48; 1Ch_29:18) overlaid with gold (comp. Isa_6:6).
(c.) The altar in the second temple was taken away by Antiochus Epiphanes (1Ma_1:23), and restored by Judas Maccabaeus (1Ma_4:49). On the arch of Titus there appears no altar of incense; it is not mentioned in Hebrews 9, nor by Joseph. Ant. 14, 4, 4. According to the Mishna (Chagigah, 3, 8; Tamid, 6, 2), it was overlaid with metal. From the circumstance that the sweet incense was burnt upon it every day, morning and evening (Exo_30:7-8), as well as that the blood of atonement was sprinkled upon it (5, 10), this altar had a special importance attached to it. It is the only altar which appears in the Heavenly Temple (Isa_6:6; Rev_8:3-4). It was doubtless this altar at which Zacharias was ministering when the angel appeared to him (Luk_1:11).
See generally Hamm, De Ara sufitus (Herborn, 1715); Cremer, Antiq. Sacr. 1, 297 sq.; Schlichter, in the Symbol. Lit. Brem. 2, 401 sq.; Ugolini Altare Interius, in his Thesaur. 11; Bahr, Symbol. 1, 419 sq., 470 sq. SEE INCENSE.
3. Of other Jewish altars, we read only of
(1.) Altars of brick. There seems to be an allusion to such in Isa_65:3. The words are, מְקִטְּרִים עִל הִלְּבֵנַים, "offering incense on the bricks," generally explained as referring to altars made of this material, and probably situated in the "gardens" mentioned just before. Rosenmuller suggests, however, that the allusion is to some Babylonish custom of burning incense on bricks covered over with magic formulae or cuneiform inscriptions. This is also the view of Gesenius and Maurer.
(2.) The Assyro-Damascene altar erected by Ahaz for his own use (2Ki_16:10-13). SEE AHAZ. It probably resembled one of those in the annexed cut, modified for the occasion.
III. Christian. —
1. Significance. — The word altar is used, figuratively, to denote the Lord's table, not, however, in a sacrificial sense. As there is but the one sacrificing priest, the Lord Jesus, and the one propitiatory sacrifice, namely, the sacrifice of himself, so there is but the one altar, that upon which he gave himself a ransom for all. The apostles in no instance call the bread and wine a sacrifice, or the Lord's table an altar, or the Christian minister a priest. And this is the more remarkable in this case; for they do speak of priests, and sacrifices, and altars under the Christian dispensation, but never in reference to the Lord's Supper. There cannot but have been design in this omission. In the earliest age of Christianity the table was not called altar (Lardner, Works, 4, 212); at a later period both altar and table were used indifferently, the former word, however, not in a Jewish or pagan sense. When the ancient apologists were reproached with having no temples, no altars, no shrines, they simply replied, “Shrines and altars we have not." The more common word employed was table, with the addition of some epithet implying the peculiar use of it in a Christian church. In Chrysostom it is termed the mystical and tremendous table; sometimes the spiritual, divine, royal, immortal, heavenly table. Wherever the word altar was used, it was carefully distinguished from the Jewish altar on which bloody sacrifices were laid, and from heathen altars, connected with absurd idolatries.
The Church of England never uses the word "altar" for communion-table in her rubrics, and she carefully excludes, the notion of a literal sacrifice, which altar would imply, by expressly referring in her communion- service to the sacrifice of Christ ("who, by his one oblation of himself once offered, made a full, perfect, and sufficient sacrifice for the sins of the whole world”); and by studiously introducing into the same service the word "sacrifice" in the several figurative senses (warranted by Scripture) which it. will bear; applying the word to our alms, to our offering of: praise and thanksgiving, to the offering of ourselves, souls and bodies, but never applying it to the elements, That the English reformers wished to discountenance the notion of altars, and sacrifices thereon, appears from the fact that at the Reformation altars were ordered henceforth, to be called tables, in consequence of a sermon preached by Bishop Hooper, who said, “that it would do well, that it might please the magistrate to turn 'altars' into 'tables,' according to, the first institution of Christ; to take away the false persuasion of the people, which they have of sacrifice to be done upon the altars for as long as altars remain, both the ignorant people and the ignorant and evil-persuaded priest will always dream of sacrifice" (Hooper's Writings, Parker Society, p. 488; Burnet, Hist. of Reformation, 2, 252, 253). Other Protestant Churches, in particular the Lutheran, have retained the use of an altar, at which the Liturgy is read, the Lord's Supper celebrated, and other ecclesiastical actions performed.
2. Material and Form. — In the time of Augustine it appears that the altars in the churches of Africa were of wood, and it is commonly thought that stone altars began to be used about the time of Constantine. In the time of Gregory Nyssen altars began to be made generally of stone.; and the twenty-sixth canon of the council of Epaone, A.D. 517, forbids to consecrate any but a stone altar; from which and other evidence (see- Martene, lib. 1, cap. 3, art. 6, No. 5) it appears that wooden altars were in use in France till that, and a much later period. In England wooden altars were originally in common use (William of Malmesbury, 3, 14, De Vita Wulstani, Ep. Wigorn.: "Erant tunc temporis altaria lignea, jam inde a priscis diebus in Anglia, ea ille per dioecesin demolitus, ex lapidibus compaginavit alia"). At the English Reformation stone altars were removed and wooden tables substituted. The eighty-second canon of the synod of London, 1603, orders that a convenient and decent table shall be provided for the celebration of the holy communion, covered with a carpet of silk, or other decent stuff, and with a fair linen cloth at the time of communion. As to its position, the rubric before the communion service states that it may stand in the body of the church; or in the chancel.
Altars in the Romish Church are built of stone, to represent Christ, the foundation-stone of the spiritual building, the Church. Every altar has three steps going up to it, covered with a carpet. It is decked with natural and artificial flowers, according to the season of the year, and no cost is spared in adorning it with gold, silver, and jewels. The tabernacle of the Holy Sacrament is placed on the holy altar, on each side of which are tapers of white wax, except at all offices for the dead, and during the last three days of Passion-week, at which time they are yellow. A crucifix is placed on the altar. There is a copy, written in a legible hand, of the Te igitur, a prayer addressed only to the first Person of the Trinity. The altar is furnished with a little bell, which is rung thrice when the priest kneels down, thrice when he elevates the host, and thrice when he sets it down. There is also a portable altar or consecrated stone, with a small cavity in the middle of the front side, in which are put the relics of saints, and it is sealed up by the bishop. Should the seal be broken, the altar loses its consecration. The furniture of the altar consists of a chalice and paten for the bread and wine, both of gold or silver; a pyx for holding the wafer, at least of silver-gilt; a veil, in form of, pavilion, of rich white stuff to cover the pyx; a thurible, of silver or pewter, for the incense; a holy-water pot, of silver, pewter, or tin; also corporals, palls, purificatories, etc. About the time of Charlemagne it became common to have several altars in one church, a custom which spread, especially since the eleventh century. The side altars were usually erected on pillars, side walls, or in chapels, while the main or high altar stands always in the choir. The Greek churches have generally only one altar.
3. The portable altar (altare portatile, gestatorium, or itinerarium) was one that might be carried about at convenience. These altars Martene refers to the very earliest ages of the Church, maintaining, with some reason, that during times of persecution portable altars were much more likely to be used than those which were fixed and immovable. The use of such portable altars was afterward retained in cases of necessity. The order of benediction is given by Martene, De Ant. Eccl. Rit. (2, 291). — Bingham, Orig. Eccl. bk. 8, ch. 6, § 11-15; Procter, on Common Prayer, p. 29, 58; Collier, Eccl. Hist. — 6. 257; Butler, Lives of Saints, 4, 418; Neal, Hist. of Puritans, 1, 44; 2, 306.
4. The privileged altar (ara proerogativa) was one to which peculiar privileges are granted: e.g. an altar at which, by privilege of the pope, masses for the dead may be said on days when they are not permitted at other altars, and where, according to the modern Roman doctrine, the Church applies, in a peculiar manner, the merits of Jesus Christ and the saints to the souls in purgatory; "but not so that a soul is infallibly delivered from purgatory at each mass that is said, as some may imagine, because indulgences can only avail the dead in the way of suffrages."
The origin of privileged altars in the Roman Church dates as lately as the time of Gregory XIII; i.e. between 1572 and 1585, although some writers have endeavored to assign them to an earlier period.
In the earliest ages, the clergy only were allowed to approach the altar; not even the emperor himself, at first, was allowed this privilege, but afterward the rule was relaxed in favor of the imperial dignity (Canon 69, in Trullo). The approach of women to the altar was, if possible, even more strictly prohibited than that of men (Can. 44 of Laodicea, Song of Solomon 4 of Tours, etc.). “In these days," says Martene, "the licentiousness of men has arrived at that pitch in the churches, that not only emperors and princes, but the very common people so fill the choir that scarcely is there. sitting room left for the ministering clergy. Nay, more; with shame be it spoken, often women are found so lost to all reverence and shame, as not to hesitate to sit on the very steps of the altar!" — Martene, De Ant. Eccl. Rit. lib. 1, cap. 3; Landon, Eccl. Dict. s.v.
Further literature on the subject of altars is contained in the treatises of Batellus, Ablutio basilicoe Vat. (Romans 1702); Bebel, De mensis euch. vett. (Argent. 1668); Chladenius, De altaragio, (Vit. 1746); Cleffel, De expurg. altaris (Viteb. 1718); Fabricius, De altaribus (Helm. 1698); Fries, Altare in ev. Kirchen (Flensb. 1776); Gattico, De oratoriis (Romans 1741); Geret, De vet. Chr. altaribus (Onold. 1755); Maii, Diss. de aris et altaribus vett. (Giess. 1732); Mizler, De aris et altaribus (Viteb. 1696); Molinsaus, De altaribus vet. Chr. (Hannov. 1607); Orland, De expiando altariq (Flor. 1709); Schmid, De altar. portatilibus (Jen. 1695); Schonland, Nachricht von Altiren (Leipz. 1716); Slevogt, Rechte der Altare (Jena, 1726, 1732); Tarpagius, De sepulchro altarium (Hafn. 1702); Thiers, Autels des eglises (Par. 1688); Tilemann, De altellis (Ulad. 1743); Treiber, De situ altarium (Jen. 1668); Voigt, Thysiasteriologia (Hamb. 1709); Wildvogel, Dejure altarium (Jen. 1716); Hoffmann, De Ara Victoria Imperatoribus Christ. odiosa (Wittenb. 1760); Heideloff, D. Christl. Altar (Nurnb. 1838). SEE TEMPLE.



CYCLOPEDIA OF BIBLICAL, THEOLOGICAL AND ECCLESIASTICAL
press 1895.

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