Linen

VIEW:33 DATA:01-04-2020
LINEN is cloth made from the prepared fibre of flax. In ancient Egypt great proficiency was attained in its manufacture (Pliny, HN vii. 56; Strabo, xxvii. 41; Herod. ii. 182), and a flourishing trade was carried on (Pro_7:16, Eze_27:7). As material of wearing apparel it has always been esteemed in the East. In a hot climate it tends to greater freshness and cleanliness than cotton or wool. The Egyptian priests were obliged to wear linen (Herod. ii. 37; Wilk. Anc. Egyp. iii. 117). The ‘cotton garments’ mentioned on the Rosetta stone were probably worn over the linen, and left outside when the priests entered a temple. The embalmed bodies of men and animals were wrapped in strips of linen. No other material was used for this purpose (Wilk. ib. iii. 115, 116, 484). Perhaps we may trace Egyptian influence in the place given to linen in the hangings, etc., of the Tabernacle, and in the garments of the priests (Exo_25:4; Exo_26:1 etc., Exo_28:15 etc.). It formed part of the usual clothing of royalty, and of the wealthy classes (Gen_41:42, Est_8:15, Luk_16:19). It is the dress worn by persons engaged in religious service. The priests are those who ‘wear a linen ephod’ (1Sa_22:18). The child Samuel in Shiloh (1Sa_2:18), and David, bringing back the ark (2Sa_6:14 etc.), also wear the linen ephod; cf. Eze_9:2; Eze_10:2, Dan_10:5. It formed the garment of the Levite singers (2Ch_5:12). It was the fitting raiment of the Lamb’s wife, ‘the righteousness of the saints’ (Rev_19:3); presumptuously assumed by ‘the great city Babylon’ (Rev_18:16); in it are also arrayed ‘the armies that are in heaven’ (Rev_19:14).
No clear and uniform distinction can be drawn between several Heb. words tr. [Note: translate or translation.] ‘linen.’ bad appears to be always used of garments (Gen_41:42 etc.), while shçsh may perhaps mean the thread, as in the phrase ‘bad of fine twined shçsh’ (Exo_39:28), the cloth made from it (Exo_25:4; Exo_26:1, Eze_27:7 etc.), and also garments (Exo_28:5 etc.). We cannot, indeed, be certain that ‘linen’ is always intended (Guthe, Bib. Wörterbuch, s.v.). The modern Arab. [Note: Arabic.] shash means ‘cotton gauze.’ bûts is a word of Aramæan origin, occurring only in later books (Eze_27:16, 1Ch_4:21, Est_1:6), whence comes the Gr. byssos. which covered both bad and shçsh (Jos. [Note: Josephus.] Ant. III. vi. 1f.). By later writers it was taken to represent cotton (Liddell and Scott, s.v.). pishtîm is a general term, denoting the flax, or anything made from it (Jos_2:5, Jdg_15:14, Jer_13:1 etc.). sâdîn was a sheet in which the whole body might be wrapped (Jdg_14:12 f., Pro_31:24 etc.). It probably corresponded to the sindôn ‘linen cloth’ of Mar_14:51, and the shroud of Mat_27:59 etc. ’çtûm (Pro_7:16) is probably fine Egyptian thread, with which cloths and haogiogs were ornamented, othonç (Act_10:11) is a large sheet: othonia (Joh_19:40 etc.) are strips for bandages, ômolinon (Sir_40:4) was cloth of unbleached flax, sha‘atnçz (Lev_19:19) was probably cloth composed of linen and cotton.
Linen yarn (1Ki_10:28, 2Ch_1:15, miqweh) should almost certainly be rendered with RV [Note: Revised Version.] ‘drove.’
W. Ewing.
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible
Edited by James Hastings, D.D. Published in 1909


Fine linen. Shes, an Egyptian word. The unique dress of the Egyptian priests (Gen_41:42). Pharaoh arrayed Joseph in it as a dress of state; not cotton, nor silk (as margin). So Eze_27:7, sheesh; Eze_27:16, buwts bussos, Greek), the fine linen of Syria used for the hangings of Solomon's temple and David's "robe of fine linen" (1Ch_15:27; 2Ch_2:14). The Egyptian fine linen was equal to the best now made in general texture, and superior in evenness of threads without knot or break. In Est_1:6 for "green" translated, rather "(Persian) linen cloth," karpas, carbasus. The unstudied propriety of designation by the native names respectively of linen of Egypt, Syria, and Persia, is a strong mark of genuineness. In Eze_16:10 alone is "silk" probably meant (meshi, perhaps a Chinese word).
The flax for the tabernacle was spun by the women, and as thread given to Aholiab and his helpers to weave (Exo_25:4; Exo_35:25; Exo_35:35); he directed the work of the skilled weaver ("the cunning workman"), the embroiderer and the ordinary weaver. Baad (from a root meaning "separate", referring to the distinctness of the threads in the texture) is the Hebrew for the linen breeches of Aaron and his sons in ministering: Exo_28:40-42, which compared with Exo_39:28, "linen (baad) of fine turned linen" (sheesh) identifies baad with sheesh, sheesh being perhaps the spun threads, baad the linen woven from them.
Baad is exclusively applied to the holy linen garments, ephod, etc., of priests, etc. (1Ch_15:27), and angels (Eze_9:2-3; Eze_9:11; Eze_10:2; Eze_10:6; Dan_10:5; Dan_12:6-7). Buwts, bussos, was the Levite choir's dress (2Ch_5:12); kings wore it loosely over the close fitting tunic (1Ch_15:27). The temple veil was of it, naturally as made by Tyrians (2Ch_3:14; 2Ch_2:14). Mordecai was arrayed in it (Est_8:15). The house of Ashbea, sprung from Shelah Judah's sou, wrought in it (buwts) (1Ch_4:21); tradition says they wrought priests' and kings' robes and the sanctuary hangings. The bride's "fine linen, the righteousness of saints," contrasts with the harlot Babylon's merchandise in "fine linen" (Rev_19:8; Rev_19:14; Rev_18:12).
So also the fine linen (sheesh) which God put upon Israel (Eze_16:10); contrast the rich man's fine linen (bussos) (Luk_16:19). Pro_7:16, "I have decked my bed with fine linen 'etuwn, related to Greek othonee of Egypt," i.e. ornamented the bed covering with threads of fine Egyptian flax. In Jdg_14:12-13, sadin (Greek sindon) is Hebrew for the 30 linen garments which Samson promised. Made by women (Pro_31:24); the good housewife "made fine linen and girdles"; her own clothing is "fine linen" (sheesh, not "silk," Pro_31:22).
Used for winding sheets and head napkins (Joh_11:44; Joh_20:5), and towels (Joh_13:4-5). Pishteh is the general term (Jos_2:6), "flax" (Jdg_15:14). Bussos is the finer linen; linon is the general term. The mummies' cloth is found by microscopic examination to be linen: linen fibre is cylindrical, transparent, and jointed as a cane; cotton fibre appears as a flat riband with a hem at each edge. Solomon's merchants brought linen yarn (miquwreh) out of Egypt (1Ki_10:28; 2Ch_1:16). But Gesenius, Keil, etc., translated "and (as for) the going out of horses from Egypt for Solomon, a company of king's merchants fetched (horses) at a definite price." This is against the accents; Septuagint and Vulgate translated "from Koa," a place for collecting customs on the Egyptian frontier.
Fausset's Bible Dictionary
By Andrew Robert Fausset, co-Author of Jamieson, Fausset and Brown's 1888.


Linen. Cloth made from flax. Several different Hebrew words are rendered linen, which may denote different fabrics of linen or different modes of manufacture. Egypt was the great centre of the linen trade. Some linen, made from the Egyptian byssus, a flax that grew on the banks of the Nile, was exceedingly soft and of dazzling whiteness. This linen has been sold for twice its weight in gold. Sir J.G. Wilkinson says of it, "The quality of the fine linen fully justifies all the praises of antiquity, and excites equal admiration at the present day, being to the touch comparable to silk, and not inferior in texture to our finest cambric."
Smith's Bible Dictionary
By Dr. William Smith.Published in 1863


lin?en (בּד, badh, ?white linen,? used chiefly for priestly robes, בּוּץ, būc, ?byssus,? a fine white Egyptian linen, called in the earlier writings שׁשׁ, shēsh; פּשׁת, pesheth, ?flax,? סדין, ṣādhı̄n; βύσσος, bússos, ὀθόνιον, othónion, λίνον, lı́non, σινδών, sindṓn): Thread or cloth made of flax.

1. History:
Ancient Egypt was noted for its fine linen (Gen_41:42; Isa_19:9). From it a large export trade was carried on with surrounding nations, including the Hebrews, who early learned the art of spinning from the Egyptians (Exo_35:25) and continued to rely on them for the finest linen (Pro_7:16; Eze_27:7). The culture of flax in Palestine probably antedated the conquest, for in Jos_2:6 we read of the stalks of flax which Rahab had laid in order upon the roof. Among the Hebrews, as apparently among the Canaanites, the spinning and weaving of linen were carried on by the women (Pro_31:13, Pro_31:19), among whom skill in this work was considered highly praiseworthy (Exo_35:25). One family, the house of Ashbea, attained eminence as workers in linen (1Ch_4:21; 2Ch_2:14).

2. General Uses:
Linen was used, not only in the making of garments of the finer kinds and for priests, but also for shrouds, hangings, and possibly for other purposes in which the most highly prized cloth of antiquity would naturally be desired.

3. Priestly Garments:
The robes of the Hebrew priests consisted of 4 linen garments, in addition to which the high priest wore garments of other stuffs (Ex 28; 39; Lev_6:10; Lev_16:4; 1Sa_22:18; Eze_44:17, Eze_44:18). Egyptian priests are said to have worn linen robes (Herod. ii. 37). In religious services by others than priests, white linen was also preferred, as in the case of the infant Samuel (1Sa_2:18), the Levite singers in the temple (2Ch_5:12), and even royal personages (2Sa_6:14; 1Ch_15:27). Accordingly, it was ascribed to angels (Eze_9:2, Eze_9:3, Eze_9:11; Eze_10:2, Eze_10:6, Eze_10:7; Dan_10:5; Dan_12:6, Dan_12:7). Fine linen, white and pure, is the raiment assigned to the armies which are in heaven following Him who is called Faithful and True (Rev_19:14). It is deemed a fitting symbol of the righteousness and purity of the saints (Rev_19:8).

4. Other Garments:
Garments of distinction were generally made of the same material: e.g. those which Pharaoh gave Joseph (Gen_41:42), and those which Mordecai wore (Est_8:15; compare also Luk_16:19). Even a girdle of fine linen could be used by a prophet as a means of attracting attention to his message (Jer_13:1). It is probable that linen wrappers of a coarser quality were used by men (Jdg_14:12, Jdg_14:13) and women (Pro_31:22). The use of linen, however, for ordinary purposes probably suggested unbecoming luxury (Isa_3:23; Eze_16:10, Eze_16:13; compare also Rev_18:12, Rev_18:16). The poorer classes probably wore wrappers made either of unbleached flax or hemp (Ecclesiasticus 40:4; Mar_14:51). The use of a mixture called sha‛aṭnēz, which is defined (Deu_22:11) as linen and wool together, was forbidden in garments.

5. Shrouds:
The Egyptians used linen exclusively in wrapping their mummies (Herod. ii. 86). As many as one hundred yards were used in one bandage. Likewise, the Hebrews seem to have preferred this material for winding-sheets for the dead, at least in the days of the New Testament (Mat_27:59; Mar_15:46; Luk_23:53; Joh_19:40; Joh_20:5 ff) and the Talmud (Jerusalem Killayim 9:32b).

6. Hangings:
The use of twisted linen (shēsh moshzār) for fine hangings dates back to an early period. It was used in the tabernacle (Exo_26:1; Exo_27:9; 35; 36; 38; Josephus, Ant., III, vi, 2), in the temple (2Ch_3:14), and no doubt in other places (Mishna, Yoma', iii. 4). Linen cords for hangings are mentioned in the description of the palace of Ahasuerus at Shushan (Est_1:6).

7. Other Uses:
Other uses are suggested, such as for sails, in the imaginary ship to which Tyre is compared (Eze_27:7), but judging from the extravagance of the other materials in the ship, it is doubtful whether we may infer that such valuable material as linen was ever actually used for this purpose. It is more likely, however, that it was used for coverings or tapestry (Pro_7:16), and possibly in other instances where an even, durable material was needed, as in making measuring lines (Eze_40:3).

International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
PRINTER 1915.


Lev_6:10 (c) This symbolizes the beautiful gift of righteousness given by GOD to those who come in simple faith and trust Him with their souls. It is the "robe" of righteousness, the "garment" of salvation. It is always pure white.

Deu_22:11 (c) By this figure GOD reveals His displeasure at man's schemes and plans to make a different robe of righteousness from that which He has ordained. Linen is a man-made product. After the Lord JESUS saves us and makes us Christians, then we begin to live a life of righteous acts, deeds and godliness which is compared to a linen robe. Wool is a product of GOD's power and ingenuity. No man can make wool. The Lord is telling us that we must not mix GOD's provision for a garment with man's provision. The wool represents GOD's grace. It is altogether "of GOD." Linen represents man's works. By this picture GOD condemns the mixture of grace and works in the matter of making the robe to wear for eternity. We are not saved by grace, and then kept by works. We are not saved partly by grace, and partly by works. GOD expects us to wear all linen as regards living for His glory and honoring His Name. He expects us to be clothed altogether by wool when it is a matter of relationship to Him, and being saved by Him.

Rev_19:8 (b) The garment of the bride here is a type of her own righteous acts, accomplished because she was the bride, and not in order to be a bride. The garment mentioned in Psalm 45 is made of gold, and that one was provided by the Lord Himself.
Wilson's Dictionary of Bible Types
press 1957.


Linen
has been made in the A. Version or elsewhere the representative of a considerable number of Hebrew and Greek terms, to most of which it more or less nearly corresponds. The material designated by them in general is no doubt principally, and perhaps by some of them exclusively, the product of the flax-plant; but there is another plant which, as being a probable rival to it, may be most conveniently considered here, namely, HEMP SEE HEMP . SEE SILK; SEE WOOL.
Hemp is a plant which in the present day is extensively distributed, being cultivated in Europe, and extending through Persia to the southernmost parts of India. In the plains of that country it is cultivated on account of its intoxicating product, so well known as bang; in the Himalayas both on this account and for its yielding the ligneous fiber which is used for sack and rope making. Its European names are no doubt derived from the Arabic kinnab, which is supposed to be connected with the Sanscrit shanapee. There is no doubt therefore, that it might easily have been cultivated in Egypt. Herodotus mentions it as being employed by the Thracians for making garments. "These were so like linen that none but a very experienced person could tell whether they were of hemp or flax; one who had never seen hemp would certainly suppose them to be linen." Hemp is used in the present day for smockfrocks and tunics; and Russia sheeting and Russia duck are well known. Cannabis is mentioned in the works of Hippocrates on account of its medical properties. Dioscorides describes it as being employed for making ropes, and it was a good deal cultivated by the Greeks for this purpose. Though we are unable at present to prove that it was cultivated in Egypt at an early period, and used for making garments, yet there is nothing improbable in its having been so. Indeed, as it was known to various Asiatic nations, it could hardly have been unknown to the Egyptians, and the similarity of the word husheesh to the Arabic shesh would lead to a belief that they were acquainted with it, especially as in a language like the Hebrew it is more probable that different names were applied to totally different things, than that the same thing had two or three different names. Hemp might thus have been used at an early period, along with flax and wool, for making cloth for garments and for hangings, and would be much valued until cotton and the finer kinds of linen came to be known.
1. PISHTEH´ (פַּשְׁתֶּה, or, rather, according to Gesenius, פֶּשֶׁת, pe'sheth, from פָּשִׁשׁ, to card) is rendered "linen" in Lev_13:47-48; Lev_13:52; Lev_13:59; Deu_22:11; Jer_13:1; Eze_44:17-18; and "flax" in Jos_2:6; Jdg_15:14; Pro_31:13; Isa_19:9; Eze_40:3, Hos_2:5; Hos_2:9. It signifies
(1.) flax. i.e., the material of linen, Isa_19:9; Deu_22:11; Pro_31:13, where its manufacture is spoken of; also a line or rope made of it, Eze_40:3; Jdg_14:4; so "stalks of flax," i.e., woody flax, Jos_2:6 (where the Sept. has λινοκαλάμη, Vulg. stipulae lini. but the Arabic Vers. stalks of cotton); and
(2.) wrought flax. i.e., linen cloth, as made into garments. e.g. generally, Lev_13:47-48; Lev_13:52; Lev_13:59; Deu_22:11; Eze_44:17; a girdle, Jer_13:1. a mitre a pair of drawers worn by the priests, Eze_44:18. A cognate term is פַּשְׁתָּה, pistah', the plant "flax" as growing, Exo_9:31; spec. a wick, made of linen, i.e., of "flax," Isa_42:3, or "tow," Isa_43:17. To this exactly corresponds the Greek λίνον (whence English linen), which, indeed, stands for pishteh or pishtah in the Sept. (at Exo_9:31; Isa_19:9; Isa_43:3). It signifies properly the flax-plant (Xenophon, Ath. 2:11, 12), but in the N.T. is only used of linen raiment (Rev_15:6; comp. Homer, Il. 9:661; Od. 13:73), also the wick of a lamp, as being composed of a strip or ravelings of linen (Mat_12:20), where the half-expiring flame is made the symbol of an almost despairing heart, which will be cheered instead of having its religious hopes extinguished by the Redeemer. In Joh_13:4-5 occurs the Latin term linteum, in its Greek form λέντιον, literally a linen cloth, hence a "towel" or apron (comp. Galen, Comp. Med. 9; Suetonius, Calig. 26).
This well-known plant was early cultivated in Egypt (Exo_9:31; Isa_19:9; comp. Pliny, 19:2; Herod. 2:105; Iasselquist, Trav. page 500), namely, in the Delta around Pelusium ("linum Pelusiacum," Sil. Ital. 3:25, 375; "linteum Pelusium," Phaedr. 2:6, 12); but also in Palestine (Jos_2:6, Hos_2:7; compare Pococke. East, 1:260), the stalk attaining a height of several feet (see Jos_2:6; compare Hartmann, Hebr. 1:116). Linen or tow was employed by the Hebrews, especially as a branch of female domestic manufacture (Pro_31:13), for garments (2Sa_6:14; Eze_44:17; Lev_13:47; Rev_15:6; comp. Philo, 2:225), girdles (Jer_31:1), thread and ropes (Eze_40:3; Jdg_15:13), napkins (Luk_24:12; Joh_19:40), turbans (Eze_44:18), and lamp-wick (Isa_40:3; Isa_43:17; Mat_12:20). For clothing they used the "fine linen" (בִּד, ὀθόνη, 1Ch_15:27, where the Sept. has βύσσινος: see Hartmann, 3:38; compare Lev_16:4; Lev_16:23; Eze_44:17), perhaps the Pelusiac linen of Egypt (see Mishna, Joma, 3:7), of remarkable whiteness (comp. Dan_12:6; Rev_15:6; see Plutarch, Isis, c. 4), with which the fine Babylon linen manufactured at Borsippa doubtless corresponded (Strabo, 16:739), being the material of the splendid robes of the Persian monarchs (Strabo, 14:719; Curt. 8:9), doubtless the karpas, כִּרְפִּס, of Est_1:6 (see Gesenius, Thesaur. Heb. page 715). Very poor persons wore garments of unbleached flax (ὠμόλινον, linum crudum, i.q. tow-cloth, Sir_40:4). The refuse of flax or tow is called in Heb. נַעֹרֵת, nesoreth (Jdg_16:9; Isaiah 31). (See, generally, Celsius, Hierobot. 2:28 sq. See FLAX.
2. BUTS (בּוּוֹ, from a root signifying whiteness) occurs in 1Ch_4:21; 1Ch_15:27; 2Ch_2:14; 2Ch_3:14; 2Ch_5:12; Est_1:6; Est_8:15; Eze_27:16, in all which passages the A.V. renders it "fine linen," except in 2Ch_5:12, where it translates "white linen." The word is of Aramean origin, being found in substantially the same form in all the cognate dialects. It is spoken of the finest and most precious stuffs, as worn by kings (1Ch_15:27), by priests (2Ch_5:12), and by other persons of high rank or honor (Est_1:6; Est_1:8; Est_1:15). It is used of the Syrian byssus (Eze_27:16), which seems there to be distinguished from the Egyptian byssus or שֵׁשׁ, shesh (Eze_27:7). Elsewhere it seems not to differ from this last, and is often put for it in late Hebrew (e.g. 1Ch_4:21; 2Ch_3:14; comp. Exo_26:31; so the Syr. and Chald. equivalents of buts occur in the O. and N.T. for the Heb. שֵׁשׁand Gr. βύσσος). That the Heb. garments made of this material were white may not only be certainly concluded from the etymology (which that of שֵׁשׁconfirms), but from the express language of Rev_19:4, where the white and shining raiment of the saints is emblematical of their purity. Yet we should not rashly reject the testimony of Pausanias (5:5), who states that the Hebrew byssus was yellow, for cotton of this color is found as well in Guinea and India (Gossypium religiosum) as in Greece at this day (comp. Vossius, ad. Virg. Geo. 2:220), although white was doubtless the prevailing color, as of linen with us. J.E. Faber (in Harmar, Observ. 2:382 sq.) suspects that the buts was a cotton-plant common in Syria, and different from the shesh or tree-cotton. It has long been disputed whether the cloths of byssus were of linen or cotton (see Celsius, Hierobot. 2:167 sq.; Forster, De bysso antiquor. London, 1776), and recent microscopic experiments upon the mummy-cloths brought to London from Egypt have been claimed as determining the controversy by discovering that the threads of these are linen (Wilkinson, Anc. Egypt. 3:115).
But this is not decisive, as there may have existed religious reasons for employing linen for this particular purpose, and the cloths used for bandaging the bodies are not clearly stated to have been of byssus. On the contrary, the characteristics ascribed to this latter are such as much better agree with the qualities of cotton (see Forster, De bysqo, ut sup.). "The corresponding Greek word βύσσος occurs in Luk_16:19, where the rich man is described as being clothed in purple and fine linen, and also in Rev_18:12; Rev_18:16; Rev_19:8; Rev_19:14, among the merchandise the loss of which would be mourned for by the merchants trading with the mystical Babylon. But it is by many authors still considered uncertain whether this byssus was of fax or cotton; for, as Rosenmüller says, 'The Heb. word shesh, which occurs thirty times in the two first books of the Pentateuch (see Celsius, 2:259), is in these places, as well as in Pro_31:22, by the Greek Alexandrian translators interpreted byssus, which denotes Egyptian cotton, and also the cotton cloth made from it. In the later writings of the O.T., as, for example, in the Chronicles, the book of Esther, and Ezekiel, buts is commonly used instead of shesh as an expression for cotton cloth.' This, however, seems to be inferred rather than proved, and it is just as likely that improved civilization may have introduced a substance, such as cotton, which was unknown at the times when shesh was spoken of and employed, in the same manner as we know that in Europe woolen, hempen, linen, and cotton clothes have at one period of society been more extensively worn than at another."
Cotton is the product of a plant apparently cultivated in the earliest ages not only in India, Cyprus, and other well-known localities, but also in Egypt (Pliny, 19:2; comp. Descript. de l'Egypte, 17:104 sq.), and even in Syria (Eze_27:16) and Palestine (1Ch_4:21; Pausan. 5:5, 2; Pococke, East, 2:88; Arvieux, 1:306). Two kinds of cotton are usually distinguished, the plant (Gossypium herbaceum) and the tree (Gossyp. arboreum), although the latest investigations appear to make them essentially one. The former, which in Western Asia is found growing in fields (Olearius, Travels, page 297; Korte, Reis. page 437), is an annual shrub two or three feet high, but when cultivated (Olivier, Trav. 2:461) it becomes a bush from three to five feet in height. The stalks are reddish at the bottom, the branches short, furry, and speckled with black spots; the leaves are dark green, large, five-lobed, and weak. The flowers spring from the junction of the leaves with the stem; they are bell-shaped, pale yellow, but purplish beneath. They are succeeded by oval capsules of the size of a hazel-nut, which swell to the size of a walnut, and (in October) burst spontaneously. They contain a little ball of white filaments, which in warm situations attains the size of an apple. Imbedded in this are seven little egg- shaped, woolly seeds, of a brown or black-gray color, which contain an oily kernel. The Gossypium arboreunr (δένδρον ἐπιοφόριον of Theophrastus) was anciently (see Theoph. Plant. 4:9, page 144, ed. Schneider), and still is indigenous in Asia (i.e., India), and attains a height of about twelve feet, but differs very little as to the leaves, blossoms, or fruit from the herbaceous cotton. See generally Belon, in Paulus's Samml. 1:214 sq.; Kurrer, in the Hall. Encykl. 8:209 sq., Oken, Lehrb. d. Neaturgesch. II, 2:1262 sq.; Ainslie, Mater. Ind. page 282 sq.; Ritter, Erdk. 7:1058 sq.

CYCLOPEDIA OF BIBLICAL, THEOLOGICAL AND ECCLESIASTICAL
press 1895.





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