Minister

VIEW:31 DATA:01-04-2020

MINISTER.—The word ‘minister’ comes from the Lat. minister = ‘servant,’ and generally it may be said that wherever it is found in the Bible, whether in OT or in NT, its original meaning is its primary one, service being the idea it is specially meant to convey.
1. In OT it is used (corresponding to the same Heb. word in each case) of Joshua as the personal attendant of Moses (Exo_24:13, Jos_1:1), of the servants in the court of Solomon (1Ki_10:5), of angels and the elemental forces of nature as the messengers and agents of the Divine will (Psa_103:21; Psa_104:4; cf. Heb_1:7; Heb_1:14), but, above all, of the priests and Levites as the servants of Jehovah in Tabernacle and Temple (Exo_28:35, 1Ki_8:11, Ezr_8:17, and constantly). The secular uses of the Heb. word, standing side by side with the sacred, show that it was not in itself a priestly term. Ministry was not necessarily a priestly thing, though priesthood was one form of ministry.
2. In NT several Gr. words are tr. [Note: translate or translation.] ‘minister,’ three of which call for notice. (1) hypçretçs is found in Luk_1:2; Luk_4:20, Act_13:5; Act_26:15, 1Co_4:1. In two of these cases RV [Note: Revised Version.] has properly substituted ‘attendant’ for ‘minister’ to avoid misconception. The ‘minister’ (Luk_4:20) to whom Jesus handed the roll in the synagogue at Nazareth was the hazzan, corresponding to the English verger or Scotch beadle. John Mark (Act_13:5) was the minister of Barnabas and Saul in the same sense as Joshua was of Moses,—he was their attendant and assistant. In the other cases hypçretçs is used of the minister of Christ or of the word in a sense that is hardly distinguishable from that of diakonos as under.
(2) leitourgos.—In classical Gr. this word with its cognates is applied to one who renders special services to the commonwealth, without any suggestion of a priestly ministry. But in the LXX [Note: Septuagint.] it was regularly applied, especially in its verbal form, to the ritual ministry of priests and Levites in the sanctuary, and so by NT times had come to connote the idea of a priestly function. What we have to notice, however, is that no NT writer uses it so as to suggest the discharge of special priestly functions on the part of an official Christian ministry. Either the reference is to the old Jewish ritual (Luk_1:23, Heb_9:21; Heb_10:11), or the word is employed in a sense that is purely figurative (Rom_15:16, Php_2:17); or, again, is applied to a ministration of Christian charity (2Co_9:12, Php_2:25; Php_2:30) or of prayer (Act_13:2; cf. v. 3), from which all ideas of priestly ritual are clearly absent.
(3) diakonos.—Even more significant than the uses to which leitourgos and its cognates are put in the NT is the fact that they are used so seldom, and that diakonos and diakonia are found instead when the ideas of minister and ministry are to be expressed. This corresponds with the other fact that the priesthood of a selected class has been superseded by a universal Christian priesthood, and that a ministry of lowliness and serviceableness (which diakonos specially implies) has taken the place of the old ministry of exclusive privilege and ritual performance, diakonia is the distinctive Christian word for ‘ministry,’ and diakonos for ‘minister.’ But these nouns and the related verb are used in the NT with a wide range of application. The personal services rendered to Jesus by Martha, Mary, and other women (Luk_10:40, Joh_12:2, Mat_27:55), and to St. Paul by Timothy, Erastus, and Onesimus (Act_19:22, Phm_1:13), are described as forms of ministry. The man who serves and follows Christ is His minister (Joh_12:26; ‘my diakonos’ is the expression in the original); and the minister of Christ will not fail to minister also to the brethren (1Co_12:5, 1Pe_4:10). But while every true Christian is a minister of Christ and of the brethren, there is a ministry of particular service out of which there gradually emerges the idea of a special Christian ministry. We may find the roots of the idea in our Lord’s words to His disciples, ‘Whosoever would become great among you shall be your minister, … even as the Son of man came not to be ministered unto, but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many’ (Mat_20:26 ff.). The minister at first was one who was distinguished from others by his larger services. He did not hold an office, but discharged a function. There were differences of function, indeed, and, above all, the distinction between those who were ministers of the word (Act_6:4, 2Co_3:6, Eph_3:6-7) and those who ministered by gracious deed (Act_6:1 ff.). But whatever might be the ‘diversities of ministrations’ (1Co_12:5), the word diakonos covered them all. At a later stage, when differences of function have begun to harden into distinctions of office, the name diakonos is specially appropriated to the deacon (wh. see) as distinguished from the presbyter or bishop (Php_1:1, 1Ti_3:1-13). But diakonos still continues to be used in its wider sense, for Timothy, who was much more than a deacon, is exhorted to be ‘a good minister (diakonos) of Jesus Christ’ (1Ti_4:6). See following article.
J. C. Lambert.
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible
Edited by James Hastings, D.D. Published in 1909

Minister mesharet. As Joshua was to Moses (Exo_24:13; Jos_1:1), and Elisha's "servitor" (2Ki_4:43). The king's subordinate attendants, as "servants" are higher officials (1Ki_10:5). The angelic attendants of the heavenly King (Psa_104:4). The priests and Levites, "ministers of our God" (Isa_61:6). In New Testament leitourgos is a "public administrator", civil as the magistrate (Rom_13:4; Rom_13:6), or sacerdotal as the Aaronic priests were (Heb_10:11) and as Christ was (Heb_8:2), and as Paul figuratively was, presenting as a sacrifice before God the Gentiles converted by his ministry of the gospel (Rom_15:16) and their faith (Php_2:17), and as Christians minister their alms (Rom_15:27; 2Co_9:12).
Liturgy at Athens meant public service rendered gratuitously to the state; hence the sense of public Divine service (not restricted to sacrifice, Luk_1:23): Act_13:2. Hufretes is a greater man's "personal attendant" (literally, the rower under the steersman) or subordinate in waiting, as Mark was to Saul and Barnabas (Act_13:5); also (Luk_1:2; Act_26:16) interchanged with diakonos (1Co_4:1; 1Co_3:5), both applied to Paul. diakonos is also applied especially to deacons as distinguished from presbyter bishops (Php_1:1; 1Ti_3:8-13).
Fausset's Bible Dictionary
By Andrew Robert Fausset, co-Author of Jamieson, Fausset and Brown's 1888.

Minister. This term is used in the Authorized Version to describe various officials of a religious and civil character. Its meaning, as distinguished from servant, is a voluntary attendant on another. In the Old Testament, it is applied
(1) to an attendance upon a person of high rank, Exo_24:13; Jos_1:1; 2Ki_4:43;
(2) to the attaches of a royal court, 1Ki_10:5; 2Ch_22:8 ; compare Psa_104:4;
(3) To the priests and Levites. Ezr_8:17; Neh_10:36; Isa_61:6; Eze_44:11; Joe_1:9; Joe_1:13.
One term, in the New Testament, betokens a subordinate public administrator, Rom_13:6; Rom_15:16; Heb_8:2, one who performs certain gratuitous public services. A second term contains the idea of actual and personal attendance upon a superior, as in Luk_4:20.
The minister's duty was to open and close the building, to produce and replace the books employed in the service, and generally to wait on the officiating priest or teacher. A third term, diakonos, (from which comes our word, deacon), is the one usually employed in relation to the ministry of the gospel: its application is twofold, ? in a general sense, to indicate ministers of any order, whether superior or inferior, and in a special sense, to indicate an order of inferiors ministers. See Deacon.
Smith's Bible Dictionary
By Dr. William Smith.Published in 1863

one who attends or waits on another; so we find Elisha was the minister of Elijah, and did him services of various kinds, 2Ki_3:11. So Joshua was the servant of Moses, Exo_24:13; Exo_33:11. And these persons did not by any means feel themselves degraded by their stations, but in due time they succeeded to the offices of their masters. In like manner John Mark was minister to Paul and Barnabas, Act_13:5. Christ is called a minister of the true, that is, the heavenly, sanctuary. The minister of the synagogue was appointed to keep the book of the law, to observe that those who read it, read it correctly, &c, Luk_4:20. The rabbins say he was the same as the angel of the church or overseer. Lightfoot says, Baal Aruch expounds the chazan, or minister of the congregation, by sheliach hatzibbor, or angel of the congregation; and from this common platform and constitution of the synagogue, we may observe the Apostle's expression of some elders ruling and labouring in word and doctrine, others in the general affairs of the synagogue. Ministers were servants, yet servants not menial, but honourable; those who explain the word, and conduct the service of God; those who dispense the laws and promote the welfare of the community; the holy angels who in obedience to the divine commands protect, preserve, succour, and benefit the godly, are all ministers, beneficial ministers, to those who are under their charge, Heb_8:2; Exo_30:10; Lev_16:15; 1Co_4:1; Rom_13:6; Psa_104:4.
Biblical and Theological Dictionary by Richard Watson
PRINTER 1849.

Christian ministry is a very broad subject and may be conveniently studied through looking at topics that deal with its various aspects. According to its most common biblical usage, ‘ministry’ means ‘service’. A person who ministers to others is one who serves others; a minister of God is a servant of God (Deu_10:8; Psa_103:21; Joe_2:17; Mat_8:15; Mat_25:44; Mat_27:55; 2Co_3:6; 2Co_6:4; 2Co_11:15; 2Co_11:23; for details see SERVANT).
Different forms of the biblical word translated ‘minister’ denote a variety of people and the work they do in the church (Rom_12:7; Eph_6:21; Col_4:17; Heb_6:10; see GIFTS OF THE SPIRIT). The same word, transliterated ‘deacon’, refers to a recognized class of church helpers (Php_1:1; 1Ti_3:8; see DEACON). The pastoral leaders of the church, who are distinct from the deacons, are also ministers (Eph_4:11-12; Col_1:7; 1Ti_1:12; 2Ti_4:5; see APOSTLE; ELDER; TEACHER; PREACHING). The perfect minister, who is an example to all others, is Jesus Christ (Mat_20:28; Joh_13:14-16; Rom_15:8).
Bridgeway Bible Dictionary by Don Fleming
PRINTER 1990.

One who acts as the less or inferior agent, in obedience or subservience to another, or who serves, officiates, etc., as distinguished from the master or superior. In the Old Testament the term is applied to Joshua as the minister of Moses (Exo_24:13), and to Elisha as the minister to Elijah (2Ki_6:15). Persons thus designated sometimes succeeded to the office of their principal, as did Joshua and Elisha. The word is applied to the angels, Psa_103:21; comp. Psa_104:4; Heb_1:7; and also to the Jews in their capacity as a sacred nation, 'Men shall call you the ministers of our God' (Isa_61:6); and to the priests (Jer_33:21; Eze_44:11; Eze_45:4; Joe_1:9). In the New Testament the term is applied to Christian teachers, Act_13:2; Rom_15:16; and to Christ, Heb_8:2; to the collectors of the Roman tribute, in consequence of the divine authority of political government, 'they are God's ministers.' The word diakonos, 'minister,' is applied to Christian teachers, 1Co_3:5; 2Co_3:6; 2Co_6:4; 2Co_11:23; 1Th_3:2; to false teachers, 2Co_11:15; to Christ, Rom_15:8; Rom_15:16; Gal_2:17; to heathen magistrates, Rom_13:4; in all which passages it has the sense of a minister, assistant, or servant in general, as in Mat_20:26; but it means a particular sort of minister, 'a deacon,' in Php_1:1; 1Ti_3:8; 1Ti_3:12. Another word similarly rendered is applied to Christian ministers, Luk_1:2; Act_26:16; 2Co_4:1. The word denotes, in Luk_4:20, the attendant in a synagogue who handed the volume to the reader, and returned it to its place. In Act_13:5 it is applied to 'John whose surname was Mark,' in his capacity as an attendant or assistant on Barnabas and Saul. It primarily signifies an under-rower on board a galley, of the class who used the longest oars, and consequently performed the severest duty, as distinguished from the rower upon the upper bench of the three, and from the sailors or the marines: hence in general a hand, agent, minister, attendant, etc.




The Popular Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature
by John Kitto.

Minister
one who acts as the less (from minus or minor) or inferior agent, in obedience or subservience to another, or who serves, officiates, etc., as distinguished from the master, magister (from magis), or superior. It is used in the A.V. to describe various officials of a religious and civil character. The words so translated in the Scriptures are the following:
1. מְשָׁרֵת, meshareth', which is applied,
(1) to an attendant upon a person in high rank, as to Joshua in relation to Moses (Exo_24:13, Sept. παρεστηκὼς αὐτῷ; Aquila and Symm. ὁ λειτουργὸς αὐτοῦ; comp. Exo_33:11, Sept. θεράπων Ι᾿ησοῦς; Num_11:28; Jos_1:1, Sept. ὑπουργὸς Μωυσῆ; Alex. λιτουργός), and to the attendant on the prophet Elisha (2Ki_4:43; 2Ki_6:15, Sept. λειτουργός; comp. 2Ki_3:11; 1Ki_19:21);
(2) to the attaches of a royal court (1Ki_10:5 [Sept. λειτουρός, where, it may be observed, they are distinguished from the “servants” or officials of higher rank [עֶבֶד, a more general term, Sept. παῖς], answering to our ministers, by the different titles of the chambers assigned to their use, the “sitting” of the servants meaning rather their abode, and the “attendance” of the ministers the ante-room in which they were stationed); persons of high rank held this post in the Jewish kingdom (2Ch_22:8); and it may be in this sense, as the attendants of the King of kings, that the, term is applied to the angels in Psa_103:21 (λειτουργοί); comp. Psa_104:4 (Heb_1:7; and see Stuart's Comment. ad loc.);
(3) to the priests and Levites, who are thus described by the prophets and later historians (Jer_33:21; Eze_44:11; Joe_1:9; Joe_1:13; Ezr_8:17; Neh_10:36), though the verb, whence meshareth is derived, is not uncommonly used in reference to their services in the earlier books (Exo_28:43; Num_3:31; Deu_18:5, etc.). Persons thus designated sometimes succeeded to the office of their principal, as did Joshua and Elisha. Hence the term is used of the Jews in their capacity as a sacred nation, “Men shall call you the ministers of our God” (Isa_61:6).
2. פְּלָה, pelach' (Chald.), Ezr_7:24, “minister” of religion, λειτουργός (comp. פלחן, Ezr_7:19), though he uses the word משרתים in the same sense, Ezr_8:17. In the N.T. we have three terms, each with its distinctive meaning.
3. Λειτουρός, a term derived from λεῖτον ἔργον, “public work,” and the leitourgia was. the name of certain personal services which the citizens of Athens and some other states had to perform gratuitously for the public good. From the sacerdotal use of the word in the N.T., it obtained the special sense of a “ public divine service,” which is perpetuated in our word “liturgy.” The verb λειτουργεῖν is used in this sense in Act_13:2. It answers most nearly to the Hebrew meshareth, and is usually employed in the Sept. as its equivalent. It betokens a subordinate public administrator, whether civil or sacerdotal, and is applied in the former sense to the magistrates in their relation to the divine authority (Rom_13:6), and in the latter sense to our Lord in relation to the Father (Heb_8:2), and to St. Paul in relation to Jesus Christ (Rom_15:16), where it occurs among other expressions of a sacerdotal character, “ministering” (ἱερουργοῦντα), “offering up” (προσφορά, etc.). In all these instances the original and special meaning of the word, as used by the Athenians, namely, with respect to those who administered the public offices (λειτουργίαι) at their own expense (Bockh, Staatshaush. der Athener, 1:480; 2:62; Potter's Gr. Ant. 1:85), is preserved, though this comes, perhaps, yet more distinctly forward in the cognate terms λειτουργία and λειτουργεῖνapplied to the sacerdotal office of the Jewish priest (Luk_1:3; Heb_9:21; Heb_10:11),to the still higher priesthood of Christ (Heb_8:6), and in a secondary sense to the Christian priest who offers up to God the faith of his converts (Php_2:17, λειτουργία τῆς πίστεως), and to any act of public self-devotion on the part of a Christian disciple (Rom_15:27; 2Co_9:12; Php_2:30).
4. The second Greek term, ὑπηρἐτης, differs from the two others in that it contains the idea of actual and personal attendance upon a superior. Thus it is used of the attendant in the synagogue, the חָזָן, chazan, of the Talmudists (Luk_4:20), whose duty it was to open and close the building, to produce and replace the books employed in the service, and generally to wait on the officiating priest or teacher (Carpzov, Apparat. p. 314). It is similarly applied to Mark, who, as the attendant on Barnabas and Saul (Act_13:5), was probably charged with the administration of baptism and other assistant duties (De Wette, ad loc.); and again to the subordinates of the high-priests (Joh_7:32; Joh_7:45; Joh_18:3, etc.), or of a jailor (Mat_5:25= πράκτωρ in Luk_12:58; Act_5:22). Josephus calls Moses τὸν ὑπηρέτην θεοῦ (Ant. 3:1,4). Kings are so called in Wis_6:4. The idea of personal attendance comes prominently forward in Luk_1:2; Act_26:16, in both of which places it is alleged as a ground of trustworthy testimony (“ipsi viderunt, et, quod plus est, ministrarunt,” Bengel). Lastly, it is used interchangeably with διάκονος in 1Co_4:1, comp. with 1Co_3:5, but in this instance the term is designed to convey the notion of subordination and humility. In all these cases the etymological sense of the word (ὑπὸ ἐρέτης) comes out. It primarily signifies an under-rower on board a galley, of the class who used the longest oars, and consequently, performed the severest duty, as distinguished from the θρανίτης, the rower upon the upper bench of the three, and from the ναῦται, sailors, or the ἐπιβάται, marines (Dem. 1209, 11, 14; comp. also 1208, 20; 1214, 23; 1216, 13; Pol. 1:25, 3): hence in general a hand, agent, minister, attendant, etc. The term that most adequately represents it in our language is “attendant.”
5. The third Greek term, διάκονος, is the one usually employed in relation to the ministry of the Gospel: its application is twofold, in a general sense to indicate ministers of any order, whether superior or inferior, and in a special sense to indicate an order of inferior ministers. In the former sense we have the cognate term διακονία applied in Act_6:1; Act_6:4, both to the ministration of tables and to the higher ministration of the Word, and the term διάκονος itself applied, without defining the office, to Paul and Apollos (1Co_3:5), to Tychicus (Eph_6:21; Col_4:7), to Epaphras (Col_1:7), to Timothy (1Th_3:2), and even to Christ himself (Rom_15:8; Gal_2:17). In the latter sense it is applied in the passages where the διάκονος is contradistinguished from the bishop, as in Php_1:1; 1Ti_3:8-13. The word is likewise applied to false teachers (2Co_11:15), and even to heathen magistrates (Rom_13:4), in the sense of a minister, assistant, or servant in general, as in Mat_20:26. The term διάκονοι denotes among the Greeks a higher class of servants than the δοῦλοι (Athen. 10:192; see Buttm. Lex. 1:220; comp. Mat_22:13, and Sept. for משרת, Est_1:10; Est_2:2; Est_6:3). It is worthy of observation that the word is thus of very rare occurrence in the Sept., and then only in a general sense: its special sense, as known to us in its derivative “deacon” (q.v.) seems to be of purely Christian growth. SEE MINISTRY.
MINISTER is a Latin word applied in that portion of the Christian Church known as the Western to designate that officer who is styled deacon in Greek. The word was applied generally to the Anglican clergy about the time of the great rebellion, since which time it has come into general use, and is now applied to any preacher of the Gospel. Even the Jews have adopted the use of this word, and rabbi is scarcely ever heard in English- speaking congregations of that people. Ministers are also called divines, and may be distinguished into polemic, or those who possess controversial talents; casuistic, or those who resolve cases of conscience; experimental, those who address themselves to the feelings, cases, and circumstances. of their hearers; and, lastly, practical, those who insist upon the performance of all those duties which the Word of God enjoins. An able minister will have something of all these united in him, though he may not excel in all; and it becomes every one who is a candidate for the ministry to get a clear idea of each, that he may not be deficient in the discharge of that work which is the most important that can be sustained by mortal beings. Many volumes have been written on this subject, but we must be content in this place to offer only a few remarks relative to it.
1. In the first place, then, it must be observed that ministers of the Gospel ought to be sound as to their principles. They must be men whose hearts are renovated by divine grace, and whose sentiments are derived from the sacred oracles of divine truth. A minister without principles will never do any good; and he who professes to believe in a system should see to it that it accords with the Word of God. His mind should clearly perceive the beauty, harmony, and utility of the doctrines, while his heart should be deeply impressed with a sense of their value and importance.
2. They should be mild and as fable as to their dispositions and deportment. A naughty, imperious spirit is a disgrace to the ministerial character, and generally brings contempt. They should learn to bear injuries with patience, and be ready to do good to every one be courteous to all without cringing to any; be affable without levity, and humble without pusillanimity; conciliating the affections without violating the truth; connecting a suavity of manners with a dignity of character; obliging without flattery; and throwing off all reserve without running into the opposite extreme of volubility and trifling.
3. They should be superior as to their knowledge and talents. Though many have been useful without what is called learning, yet none have been so without some portion of knowledge and wisdom. Nor has God Almighty ever sanctified ignorance, or consecrated it to his service; since it is the effect of the fall, and the consequence of our departure from the fountain of intelligence. Ministers therefore, especially, should endeavor to break these shackles, get their minds enlarged, and stored with all useful knowledge. The Bible should be well studied, and that, especially, in the original languages. The scheme of salvation by Jesus Christ should be well, understood, with all the various topics connected with it. - And in the present day a knowledge of history, natural philosophy, logic, mathematics, and rhetoric is peculiarly requisite. A clear judgment, also, with a retentive memory, inventive faculty, and a facility of communication, should by obtained.
4. They should be diligent as to their studies. Their time, especially, should be improved, and not lost by too much sleep, formal visits, indolence, reading useless books, studying useless subjects. Every day should have its work, and every subject its due attention. Some advise a chapter in the Hebrew Bible, and another in the Greek Testament, to be read every day. A well-chosen system of divinity should be accurately studied. The best definitions should be obtained, and a constant regard paid to all those studies which savor of religion, and have some tendency to public work. 5. Ministers should be extensive as to their benevolence and candor. A contracted, bigoted spirit ill becomes those who preach a Gospel which breathes the purest benevolence to mankind. This spirit has done more harm among all parties than many imagine, and is, in our opinion, one of the most powerful engines the devil makes use of to oppose the best interests of mankind; and it is really shocking to observe how sects and parties have all, in their turns, anathematized each other. Now, while ministers ought to contend earnestly for the faith once delivered to the saints, they must remember that men always think differently from each other; that prejudice of education has great influence; that difference of opinion as to subordinate things is not of such importance as to be a ground of dislike. Let the ministers of Christ, then, pity the weak, forgive the ignorant, bear with the sincere though mistaken zealot, and love all who love the Lord Jesus Christ.
6. Ministers should be zealous and faithful in their public work. The sick must be visited, children must be catechised, the ordinances administered, and the Word of God preached. These things must be. taken up, not as a matter of duty only, but of pleasure, and executed with faithfulness; and, as they are of the utmost importance, ministers should attend to them with all that sincerity, earnestness, and zeal which that importance demands. An idle, frigid, indifferent minister is a pest to society, a disgrace to his profession, an injury to the Church, and offensive to God himself.
7. Lastly, ministers should be-consistent as to their conduct. No brightness of talent, no superiority of intellect, no extent of knowledge, will ever be a substitute for this. They should not only possess a luminous mind, but set a good example. This will procure dignity to themselves, give energy to what they say, and prove a blessing to the circle in which they move. In tine, they should be men of prudence and prayer, light and love, zeal and knowledge, courage and humility, humanity and religion.
See Dr. Smith, Lecture on the Sacred Office; Gerard, Pastoral Care; Macgill, Address to Young Clergymen; Massillon, Charges; Baxter, Reformed Pastor; Herbert, Country Parson; Burnet, Pastoral Care; Dr. Edwards, Preacher; Mason, Student and Pastor; Brown, Address to Students; Mather, Student and Preacher; Ostervald, Lectures on the Sacred Ministry; Robinson, Claude; Doddridge, Lectures on Preaching; Miller, Letters on Clerical Manners; Burder, Hints; Ware, Lecture on the Connection of Pulpit Eloquence and the Pastoral Care; Christ. Examiner; Plumer, Pastoral Theology; Tyng, Office and Duty of a Christian Pastor; Bridge, Christian Ministry; Kidder, The Christian Pastorate; Townsend, Tongue and Sword; Presb. Qu. and Princet. Rev. 1854, pages 386, 708; 1859, pages 15, 366; January 1873, art. 6 and 7; Universalist Qu. October 1872, art. 7; Kitto, Journal, April 1853, page 192; Meth. Quar. Review, July 1851, page 430. SEE MINISTRY.

CYCLOPEDIA OF BIBLICAL, THEOLOGICAL AND ECCLESIASTICAL
press 1895.

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