Handicraft

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(See CIVILIZATION; BRASS.) Jewish workmen, as distinguished from the pagan workmen in ancient times, were not slaves, nor were their trades hereditary. After the captivity it was deemed at once honourable and necessary for a father to teach his son a trade. (Mishna, Pirke, ab. 2:2). Hence, Joseph the carpenter taught the holy Jesus his trade; and many of His own country marveled that works so mighty should be wrought by one like themselves, an artisan: "is not this the carpenter?" (Mar_6:3).
Fausset's Bible Dictionary
By Andrew Robert Fausset, co-Author of Jamieson, Fausset and Brown's 1888.


Handicraft. Act_18:3; Act_19:25; Rev_18:22. A trade was taught to all the Jewish boys as a necessary part of their education. Even the greatest rabbis maintained themselves by trades (Delitzsch). Says Rabbi Jehuda, "He who does not teach his son a trade is much the same as if he taught him to be a thief". In the present article, brief notice only can be given of such handicraft trades as are mentioned in Scripture.
1. Smiths or metal-workers. — The preparation of iron for use either in war, in agriculture or for domestic purposes was doubtless one of the earliest applications of labor; and together with iron, working in brass, or rather copper alloyed with tin (bronze), is mentioned as practiced in antediluvian times. Gen_4:22. After the establishment of the Jews in Canaan, the occupation of a smith became recognized as a distinct employment - 1Sa_13:19. The smith's work and its results are often mentioned in Scripture. 2Sa_12:31; 1Ki_6:7; 2Ch_26:14; Isa_44:12; Isa_54:16. The worker in gold and silver must have found employment among both the Hebrews and the neighboring nations in very early times. Gen_24:22; Gen_24:53; Gen_35:4; Gen_38:18. Various processes of the goldsmith's work are illustrated by Egyptian monuments. After the conquest, frequent notices are found of both moulded and wrought metal, including soldering.
2. Carpenters are often mentioned in Scripture. Gen_6:14; Exodus 37; Isa_44:13. In the palace built by David for himself, the workmen employed were chiefly foreigners. 2Sa_5:11. That the Jewish carpenters must have been able to carve with some skill is evident from Isa_41:7; Isa_44:13. In the New Testament, the occupation of a carpenter is mentioned in connection with Joseph the husband of the Virgin Mary, and ascribed to our Lord himself. Mat_13:55; Mar_6:3. The trade included our cabinet work as well as carpentering.
3. The masons employed by David and Solomon, at least the chief of them, were Phoenicians. 1Ki_5:18; Eze_27:9. The large stones used in Solomon's Temple are said by Josephus to have been fitted together exactly without either mortar or clamps, but the foundation stones to have been fastened with lead. For ordinary building, mortar was used; sometimes, perhaps, bitumen, as was the case at Babylon. Gen_11:3. The wall "daubed with untempered mortar" of Eze_13:10 was perhaps a sort of cob-wall of mud or clay without lime, which would give way under heavy rain. The use of whitewash on tombs is remarked by our Lord. Mat_23:27.
4. Ship-building must have been exercised to some extent for the fishing-vessels on the Lake of Gennesaret. Mat_8:23; Mat_9:1; Joh_21:3; Joh_21:8. Solomon built ships for his foreign trade. 1Ki_9:26-27; 1Ki_22:48; 2Ch_20:36-37.
5. Apothecaries or perfumers appear to have formed a guild or association. Exo_30:25; Exo_30:35; 2Ch_16:14; Neh_3:8; Ecc_7:1; Ecc_10:1. Sir_38:8.
6. Weavers. — The arts of spinning and weaving both wool and linen were carried on in early times, as they usually are still among the Bedouins, by women. Exo_35:20; Exo_35:26; Lev_19:19; Lev_22:11; 2Ki_23:7; Eze_16:16; Pro_31:13-14. The loom with its beam, 1Sa_17:7 pin, Jdg_16:14, and shuttles Job_7:6 was perhaps introduced later, but as early as David's time. 1Sa_17:7.
7. Dyeing and dressing cloth were practiced in Palestine, as were also tanning and dressing leather. Jos_2:15-18; 2Ki_1:8; Mat_3:4; Act_9:43.
8. Barbers. Num_6:5; Num_6:19; Eze_5:1.
9. Tentmakers are noticed in Act_18:3.
10. Potters are frequently alluded to. Jer_18:2-6.
11. Bakers are noticed in Scripture, Jer_37:21; Hos_7:4, and the well-known valley Tyropoeon probably derived its name from the occupation of the cheese-makers, its inhabitants.
12. Butchers, not Jewish, are spoken of 1Co_10:25.
Shoemakers, tailors, glaziers and glass vessels painters and gold workers are mentioned in the Mishna. Chel. viii. 9; xxix. 3,4; xxx. 1.
Smith's Bible Dictionary
By Dr. William Smith.Published in 1863


han?di-kraft. See CRAFTS.

International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
PRINTER 1915.


In the early periods to which the Scriptural history refers we do not meet with those artificial feelings and unreasonable prejudices against hand-labor which prevail and are so banefully influential in modern society. The primitive history which the Bible presents is the history of hand-laborers. Adam dressed the garden in which God had placed him (Gen_2:15), Abel was a keeper of sheep, Cain a tiller of the ground (Gen_4:3), Tubal-cain a smith (Gen_4:22). The general nature of this article does not require any extensive or detailed inquiry into the hand-labors which the Israelites practiced before their descent into Egypt; but the high and varied culture which they found there must have contributed greatly to increase their knowledge of the practical arts of life, though the herdsman-sort of life which the Hebrews continued to lead was not favorable to their advancement in either science or art.
Another source of knowledge to the Hebrews of handicrafts were the maritime and commercial Phoenicians. Commerce and navigation imply great skill in art and science; and the pursuits to which they lead largely increase the skill whence they emanate. It is not, therefore, surprising that the origin of so many arts has been referred to the north-eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea; nor is there any difficulty in understanding how arts and letters should be propagated from the coast to the interior, conferring high advantages on the inhabitants of Syria in general, as well before as after the settlement of the Hebrew tribes in the land of promise.
The skill of the Hebrews during their wanderings in the desert does not appear to have been inconsiderable; but the pursuits of war and the entire absorption of the energies of the nation in the one great work of gaining the land which had been given to them, may have led to their falling off in the arts of peace; and from a passage in I Samuel (1Sa_13:20) it would appear that not long after they had taken possession of the country they were in a low condition as to the instruments of handicraft. A comparatively settled state of society, however, soon led to the revival of skill by the encouragement of industry. A more minute division of labor ensued. Trades, strictly so called, arose, carried on by persons exclusively devoted to one pursuit. Thus in Jdg_17:4 and Jer_10:14, 'the founder' is mentioned, a trade which implies a practical knowledge of metallurgy; the smelting and working of metals were well known to the Hebrews (Job_37:18); brass was in use before iron; arms and instruments of husbandry were made of iron. In Exodus (Exo_35:30-35) a passage occurs which may serve to specify many arts that were practiced among the Israelites, though it seems also to intimate that at the time to which it refers artificers of the description referred to were not numerous. From the ensuing chapter (Exo_35:32) it appears that gilding was known before the settlement in Canaan. The ark (Exo_37:2) was overlaid with pure gold within and without. The cherubim were wrought ('beaten,' Exo_37:7) in gold. The candlestick was of beaten gold (Exo_37:17; Exo_37:22). Wire-drawing was probably understood (Exo_38:4; Exo_39:3). Covering with brass (Exo_38:2) and with silver (Pro_26:23) was practiced. Architecture and the kindred arts do not appear to have made much progress till the days of Solomon, who employed an incredible number of persons to procure timber (1Ki_5:13, sq.); but the men of skill for building his temple he obtained from Hiram, king of Tyre (1 Kings 5 sq.; 1Ch_14:1; 2Ch_2:7). The intercourse which the Babylonish captivity gave the Jews seems to have greatly improved their knowledge and skill in both the practical and the fine arts, and to have led them to hold them in very high estimation. The arts were even carried on by persons of learning, who took a title of honor from their trade. It was held a sign of a bad education if a father did not teach his son some handicraft.
In the Apocrypha and New Testament there are mentioned tanners (Act_9:43), tent-makers (Act_18:3); in Josephus, cheese-makers, domestics; in the Talmud, with others we find tailors, shoe-makers, blood-letters, glaziers, goldsmiths, plasterers. Certain handicraftsmen could never rise to the rank of high-priest, such as weavers, barbers, fullers, perfumers, cuppers, tanners; which pursuits, especially the last, were held in disesteem. In large cities particular localities were set apart for particular trades, as is the case in the East to the present day. Thus in Jeremiah (Jer_37:21) we read of 'the bakers Street.' So in the Talmud mention is made of a flesh-market; in Josephus, of a cheese-market; and in the New Testament (Joh_5:2) we read of a sheep-market.
The Popular Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature
by John Kitto.


Handicraft
a general term (not occurring, however, in the Bible) for any manufacture. SEE ARTIFICER. Although the extent cannot be ascertained to which those arts were carried whose invention is ascribed to Tubal-Cain (Gen_4:22), it is probable that this was proportionate to the nomadic or settled habits of the antediluvian races. Among nomad races, as the Bedouin Arabs, or the tribes of Northern and Central Asia and of' America, the wants of life, as well as the arts which supply them, are few; — and it is only among the city dwellers that both of them are multiplied and make progress. The following particulars may be gathered respecting the various handicrafts mentioned in he Scriptures. SEE CRAFTSMAN.
1. The preparation of iron for use either in war, in agriculture, or for domestic purposes, was doubtless one (the earliest applications of labor; and, together with iron, working in brass, or, rather, copper alloyed with tin, bronze (נַחשֶׁת, Gesenius, Thes. Heb. p. 875), is mentioned in the same passage as practiced in antediluvian times (Gen_4:22). The use of this last is usually considered as an art of higher antiquity even than that of iron (Hesiod, Works and Days, p. 150; Wilkinson, Anc. Eg. 2, 152, abridgment), and there can be no doubt that metal, whether iron or bronze, must have been largely used, either in material or in tools, for the construction of the ark (Gen_6:14; Gen_6:16). Whether the weapons for war or chase used by the early warriors of Syria and Assyria, or the arrow- heads of the archer Ishmael, were of bronze or iron, cannot be ascertained; but we know that iron was used for warlike purposes by the Assyrians (Layard, Nin. and Bab. p. 194); and, on the other hand, that stone-tipped arrows, as was the case also in Mexico, were used in the earlier times by the Egyptians, as well as the Persians and Greeks, and that stone or flint knives continued to be used by them, and by the inhabit-ants of the desert, and also by the Jews,
For religious purposes, after the introduction of iron into general use (Wilkinson, Anc. Ay. 1, 353, 354; 2, 163; Prescott, Mexico, 1, 118; Exo_4:25; Jos_5:2; Joshua 1 st Egypt. room, Brit. Mus. case 36, 37). In the construction of the tabernacle, copper, but no iron, appears to have been used, though the utility of iron was at the same period well known to the Jews, both from their own use of it and from their Egyptian education, while the Canaanitish inhabitants of Palestine and Syria were in full possession of its use both for warlike and domestic purposes (Exo_20:25; Exo_25:3; Exo_27:19; Num_35:16; Deu_3:11; Deu_4:20; Deu_8:9; Jos_8:31; Jos_17:16; Jos_17:18). After the establishment of the Jews in Canaan, the occupation of a smith (חָרָשׁ) became recognized as a distinct employment (1Sa_13:19). The designer of a higher order appears to have been called specially חשֵׁב (Gesenius, p. 531; Exo_35:30; Exo_35:35; 2Ch_26:15; Saalschtitz, Arch. Hebr. c. 14, § 16).. The smith's work (including workers in the precious metals) and its results are often mentioned in Scripture (2Sa_12:31; 1Ki_6:7; 2Ch_26:14; Isa_44:12; Isa_54:16). Among the captives taken to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar were 1000 “craftsmen” and smiths, who were probably of the superior kind (2Ki_24:16; Jer_29:2). SEE CHARASHIIM.
The worker in gold and silver (צוֹרֵ; ἀργυροκόπος; χωνευτής, argentarius, aurifex) must have found employment both among the Hebrews and the neighboring nations in very early times, as appears from the ornaments sent by Abraham to Rebekah (Gen_24:22; Gen_24:53; Gen_35:4; Gen_38:18; Deu_7:25). But, whatever skill the Hebrews possessed, it is quite clear that they must have learned much from Egypt and its “iron- furnaces,” both in metal-work and in the arts of setting and polishing precious stones; arts which were turned to account both in the construction of the Tabernacle and the making of the priests' ornaments, and also in the casting of the golden calf as well as its destruction by Moses, probably, as suggested by Goguet, by a method which he had learnt in Egypt (Gen_41:42; Exo_3:22; Exo_12:35; Exo_31:4-5; Exo_32:2; Exo_32:4; Exo_32:20; Exo_32:24; Exo_37:17; Exo_37:24; Exo_38:4; Exo_38:8; Exo_38:24; Exo_38:24-25; Exo_39:6; Exo_39:39; Neh_3:8; Isa_44:12). Various processes of the goldsmiths' work, including operations in the raw material, are illustrated by Egyptian monuments (Wilkinson, Anc. Eg. 2, 136,152,162). SEE GOLDSMITH, etc.
After the conquest, frequent notices are found both of molded and wrought metal, including soldering, which last had long been known, in Egypt; but the Phoenicians appear to have possessed greater skill than the Jews in these arts, at least in Solomon's time (Jdg_3:24; Jdg_3:27; Jdg_17:4; 1Ki_7:13; 1Ki_7:45-46; Isa_41:7; Wis_15:4; Sir_38:28; Bar_6:50; Bar_6:55; Bar_6:57; Wilkinson, 2, 162). SEE ZAREPHATH. Even in the desert, mention is made of beating gold-into plates, cutting it into wire, and also of setting precious stones in gold (Exo_39:3; Exo_39:6, etc.; Beckmamn, tist. nouv. 2, 414; Gesenius, p. 1229). SEE METAL.
Among the tools of the smith are mentioned tongs (מֶלְקַחִים, λαβίς. forceps, Gesenius, p. 761; Isa_6:6), hammer (פִּטַּישׁ, σφυρἄ, malleus, Gesen. p. 1101), anvil (פִּעִם, Gesenius, p. 1118), bellows. (מִפֻּח, φυσητήρ, sufflatorium, Gesenius, p. 896; Isa_41:7; Jer_6:29; Sir_38:28; Wilkinson, 2, 316). See each word.
In the N.T., Alexander “the coppersmith”(ὁ χαλκεύς) of Ephesus is mentioned, where also was carried on that trade in “silver' shrines”(ναοὶ ἀρλυποῖ) which was represented by Demetrius the silversmith (ἀρλυροκόπος) as being in danger from the spread of Christianity (Act_19:24; Act_19:28; 2Ti_4:14). SEE COPPERSMITH.
2. The work of the carpenter' (חָרִשׁ עֵצַים, τέκτω (Wilkinson.) artifex lignarius) is often mentioned in Scripture (e.g. Gen_6:14; Exodus 37; Isa_44:13). In the palace built by David for himself, the workmen employed were chiefly Phoenicians sent by Hiram (2Sa_5:11; 1Ch_14:1), as most probably were those, or at least the. principal of those who were employed by Solomon in his works (1Ki_5:6). But in the repairs of the Temple, executed under Joash, king of Judah, and also in the rebuilding under Zerubbabel, no mention is made of foreign workmen, though in the latter case the timber is expressly said to have been brought by sea to Joppa by Zidonians (2Ki_11:11; 2Ch_24:12; Ezr_3:7). That the Jewish carpenters must have been able to carve with some skill is evident from Isa_41:7; Isa_44:13, in which last passage some of the implements used in the trade are mentioned: the rule (שֶׂרֶר, μέτρον, norma, possibly a chalk pencil, Gesenius, p. 1337), measuring-line (קָר, Gesenius, p. 1201), compass (מְחיּגָה, παραγραφίς, ypaoil, circinus, Gesenius, p. 450), plane, or smoothing instrument (מַקַצוּעָה, κόλλα, uncina (Gesen. p. 1228, 1338), axe (גִּרְזֶן, Gesen. p. 302, or קִרְדֹּם, Gesen. p. 1236, ἀξίνη, securis). See each of these words.
The process of the work, and the tools used by Egyptian carpenters, and also coopers and wheelwrights, are displayed in Egyptian monuments and relics; the former, including dovetailing, veneering, drilling, gluing, varnishing, and inlaying, may be seen in Wilkinson, Anc. Eg. 2, 111-119. Of the latter, many specimens, including saws, hatchets, knives, awls, nails, a hone, and a drill, also turned objects in bone, exist in the British Museum, 1st Egypt room, case 42-43, Nos. 6046-6188. See also Wilkinson, 2, p. 113, fig. 395. SEE CARPENTER.
In the N.T. the occupation of a carpenter (τέκτων) is mentioned in connection with Joseph, the husband of the Virgin Mary, and ascribed to our Lord himself by way of reproach (Mar_6:3; Mat_13:55; and Just. Mart. dial. Tryph. c. 88).
3. The masons (גֹּדנְרַים, 2Ki_12:12 [18], wallbuilders, Gesenius, p. 269) employed by David and Solomon, at least the chief of them, were Phoenicians, as is implied also in the word גַּבְלַים, men of Gebal, Jebail, Byblus (Gesen. p. 258; 1Ki_5:18; Eze_27:9; Burckhardt, Syria, p. 179). Other terms employed are חָרָשֵׁי אֶבֶן קַיר, workers of wall-stone (2Sa_5:11; 1Ch_22:15); הֹצְבַים, stone- cutters or hewers (1Ch_22:2; 1Ch_22:15, “workers of stone;” Ezr_2:7, etc.). The בֹּנַים(2Ki_12:12) were probably maste-masons (“builders,” 2Ki_12:11). Among their implements are mentioned the saw (מַגַרָה, πριων), the plumb-line (אֲנָךְ, Gesen. p. 215), the measuring-reed (קָנֶה, κάλαμος, calamus, Gesen. p. 1221). As they also prepared the stones by hewing (1Ch_22:2), they must have used the chisel and the mallet (מַקָבָה, 1Ki_6:7), though no mention of the former occurs in Scripture. They used also the measuring-line (קָי, Job_38:5 Zec_1:16) and the axe (גַּרַזֶן, 1Ki_6:7). See each word. Some of these, and also the chisel and mallet, are represented on Egyptian monuments (Wilkinson, Anc. Egyptians, 313, 314), or preserved in the British Museum (1st Egypt. room, No. 6114, 6038). The large stones used in Solomon's Temple are said by Josephus to have been fitted together. exactly without either mortar or cramps, but the foundation stones to have been fastened-with lead (Josephus, Ant. 8, 3 2; 15, 11, 3). For ordinary building, mortar, ry1s (Gesen. p. 1328), was used; sometimes, perhaps, bitumer. as was the case at Babylon (Gen_11:3). The lime, clay, and straw of which mortar is generally composed in the East requires to be very carefully mixed and united so as to resist wet (Lane, Mod. Eg. 1. 27; Shaw, Travels, p. 206). The wall “daubed with untempered mortar”of Ezekiel (Eze_13:10) was perhaps a sort of cob-wall of mud or clay Without lime (תָּפֵל, Gesenius, p. 1516),which would give way under heavy rain. The use of whitewash on tombs is remarked by our Lord (Mat_23:27; see also Mishn. Maaser Sheni, 5, 1). Houses infected with leprosy were required by the law to be replastered (Lev_14:40-45). For kindred works in earth and clay, SEE BRICK, SEE POTTER; SEE GLASS, etc.
4. Akin to the craft of the carpenter is that of ship and boat building, which must have been exercised to some extent for the fishing-vessels on the lake of Gennesaret (Mat_8:23; Mat_9:1; Joh_21:3; Joh_21:8). Solomon built at Ezion-Geber ships for his foreign trade, which were manned by Phoenician crews, an experiment which Jehoshaphat endeavored n vain to renew (1Ki_9:26-27; 1Ki_22:48; 2Ch_20:36-37). The shipmen were הבֵל, a sailor (Jon_1:6; Eze_27:8; Eze_27:27-29; ναύτης, Act_27:30; Rev_18:17); רַב הִחבְל, shipmaster (Jon_1:6; ναύκληρος, Act_27:11); מַלָּח, mariner (Eze_27:9, etc.; Jon_1:5). SEE SHIP.
5. The perfumes used in the religious services, and in later times in the funeral rites of monarchs, imply knowledge and practice in the art of the “apothecaries”(יִקָּחים, μυρεψοί, pigmentarii), who appear to have formed a guild or association (Exo_30:25; Exo_30:35; Neh_3:8 : 2Ch_16:14; Ecc_7:1; Ecc_10:1; Sir_38:8). SEE PERFUME.
6. The arts of spinning and weaving both wool and linen were carried on in early times, as they still are usually among the Bedouins, by women. The women spun and wove goat's hair and flax for the Tabernacle, as in later times their skill was employed in like manner for idolatrous purposes. One of the excellences attributed to the good housewife is her skill and industry in these arts (Exo_35:25-26; Lev_19:19; Deu_22:11; 2Ki_23:7; Eze_16:16; Pro_31:13; Pro_31:24, Burckhardt, Notes on Bed. 1, 65; comp. Homer, II. 1, 123; Od. 1, 356; 2, 104). The loom, with its beam (מָנוֹר, μεσάντιον, liciatorium, 1Sa_17:7; Gesen. p. 883), pin (יָתֵד, πάσσαλος, clavus, Jdg_16:14; Gesen. p. 643), and shuttle (אֶרֶג, δρομεύς, Job_7:6; Gesen. p. 146) was, perhaps, introduced later, but as early as David's time (1Sa_17:7), and worked by men, as was the case in Egypt, contrary to the practice of other nations. This trade also appears to have been practiced hereditarily (1Ch_4:21; Herod. 2, 35; Sophocles, (Ed. Col. 339). SEE WEAVING.
Together with weaving we read also of embroider, in which gold and silver threads were interwoven with the body of the stuff, sometimes in figure patterns, or with precious stones set in the needlework (Exo_26:1; Exo_28:4; Exo_39:6-13). SEE EMBROIDERY.
7. Besides these arts, those of dyeing and of dressing cloth were practiced in Palestine [ SEE FULLER, etc.], and those also of tanning and dressing leather (Jos_2:15-18; 2Ki_1:8; Mat_3:4; Act_9:43; Mishna, Megill. 3, 2). Shoemakers, barbers, and tailors are mentioned in the Mishna (Pesach, 4, 6): the barber (גִּלָּב, κουρεύς, Gesenius, p. 283), or his occupation, by Ezekiel (Eze_5:1; Lev_14:8 : Num_6:5; Josephus, Ant. 16, II, 5; War, 1, 27, 5; Mishna, Shabb. 1, 2); and the tailor (1:3), plasterers, glaziers, and glass vessels, painters and goldworkers, are mentioned in Mishna (Chel. 8, 9; 29, 3, 4; 30, 1).
The art of setting and engraving precious stones was known to the Israelites from a very early period (Exo_28:9 sq.). See GEM. Works in alabaster were also common among them (בָתֵּי הִנֶפֶשׁ, smelling-boxes, or boxes of perfume; comp. Mat_26:7, etc.). SEE ALABASTER. They also adorned their houses and vessels with ivory (1Ki_22:39; Amo_3:15; Amo_6:4; Son_5:14). SEE IVORY.
Tent-makers (σκηνοποιοί) are noticed in the Acts (Act_18:3), and frequent allusion is made to the trade of the potters. See each word.
8. Bakers (אֹפַים, Gesen. p. 136) are noticed in Scripture as carrying on their trade (Jer_37:21; Hos_7:4; Mishna, Chel. 15, 2); and the well-known valley Tyropoeon probably derived its name from the occupation of the cheese-makers, its inhabitants (Josephus War, 5, 4, 1). Butchers, not Jewish, are spoken of in 1Co_10:25.
Trade in all its branches was much developed after the Captivity; and for a father to teach his son a trade was reckoned not only honorable, but indispensable (Mishna, Pirke Ab. 2, 2; Kiddush. 4, 14). Some trades, however, were regarded as less honorable (Jahn, ibl Arch. § 84).
Some, if not all, trades had special localities, as was the case formerly in European and is now in Eastern cities (Jer_37:21; 1Co_10:25; Josephus, War, 5, 4, 1, and 8, 1; Mishna, Becor. 5, 1; Russell, Aleppo, 1, 20; Chardin, Voyages, 7, 274, 394; Lane, Mod. gq. 2, 145). SEE BAZAAR.
One feature, distinguishing Jewish from other workmen, deserves peculiar notice, viz. that they were not slaves, nor were their trades necessarily hereditary, as was and is so often the case among other, especially heathen nations (Jahn, Bibl. Arch. c. 5, § 81-84; Saalschitz, Hebr. Arch. c. 14). SEE MECHANIC.

CYCLOPEDIA OF BIBLICAL, THEOLOGICAL AND ECCLESIASTICAL
press 1895.





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