Angel

VIEW:70 DATA:01-04-2020

ANGEL
1. Old Testament.—That in the OT the existence of angels is taken for granted, and that therefore no account of their origin is given, is to be explained by the fact that belief in them is based upon an earlier Animism,* [Note: This view is supported by the various names in the OT for angels, and their varied functions (see below).] such as is common to all races in the pre-polytheistic stage of culture. The whole material for the development of Israelite angelology was at hand ready to be used. It must therefore not cause surprise if we find that in its earlier stages the differentiation between Jahweh and angels should be one of degree rather than of kind (see Angel of the Lord). This is clearly brought out in the earliest of the Biblical documents (J [Note: Jahwist.] ), e.g. in Gen_18:1-33; here Jahweh is one of three who are represented as companions, Jahweh taking the leading position, though equal honour is shown to all; that the two men with Jahweh are angels is directly asserted in Gen_19:1, where we are told that they went to Sodom, after it had been said in Gen_18:33 that Jahweh ‘went his way.’ Moreover, Jahweh’s original identity with an angel, according to the early Hebrew conception, is distinctly seen by comparing, for example, such a passage as Exo_3:2 with Exo_3:4; in the former it is the ‘angel of the Lord’ who appears in the burning bush, in the latter it is God; there is, furthermore, direct identification in Gen_16:10; Gen_16:13; Gen_21:17 ff. In the earliest document in which angels are mentioned (J [Note: Jahwist.] ) they appear only by twos or threes, in the later document (E [Note: Elohist.] ) they appear in greater numbers (Gen_28:12; Gen_32:1-2); this is just what is to be expected, for J [Note: Jahwist.] , the earlier document, represents Jahweh in a less exalted form, who Himself comes down to earth, and personally carries out His purposes; by degrees, however, more exalted conceptions of Him obtain, especially as the conception of His characteristic of holiness becomes realized, so that His presence among men comes to appear incongruous and unfitting, and His activity is delegated to His messengers or angels (see Angel of the Lord).
(a) The English word ‘angel’ is too specific for the Hebrew (mal’akh) for which it is the usual equivalent; for in the Hebrew it is used in reference to men (e.g. Gen_32:4 (3), Deu_2:26, Jdg_6:35, Isa_33:7, Mal_1:1), as well as to superhuman beings. Besides the word mal’akh there are several other expressions used for what would come under the category of angels, viz.: ‘sons of God’ (bene ’elohim),* [Note: Cf. the analogous expression ‘sons of the prophets’ (benç nebî’îm).] Gen_6:2; Gen_6:4; ‘sons of the mighty’ (bene ’elim), Psa_89:7 (8), Psa_29:1; ‘mighty ones’ (gibborim), JL 4:11 (Joe_3:11 EV [Note: English Version.] ); ‘the holy ones’ (qedoshim), Zec_14:5; ‘keepers’ (shômerim), Isa_62:6; ‘watchers’ (‘irim), Dan_4:14 (17). There are also the three expressions: ‘the host of Jahweh’ (zeba’ Jahweh), Jos_5:14; ‘the host of the height’ (zeba’ marom), Isa_24:21; ‘the host of heaven’ (zeba’ shamaim), Deu_17:3 (see also Cherubim, Seraphim).
(b) Angels are represented as appearing in human form, and as having many human characteristics: they speak like men (1Ki_19:5); they eat (Gen_18:8); they fight (Gen_32:1, JL 4:11, (Joe_3:11), cf. 2Sa_5:24); they possess wisdom, with which that of men is compared (2Sa_14:17; 2Sa_14:20); they have imperfections (Job_4:18). On the other hand, they can become Invisible (2Ki_6:17, Psa_104:4), and they can fly, if, as appears to be the case, seraphim are to be included under the category of angels (Isa_6:8).
(c) The functions of angels may be briefly summarized thus: they guide men, e.g. an angel guides the children of Israel on their way to the promised land (Exo_23:20 ff., see below), and it is by the guidance of an angel that Abraham’s servant goes in quest of a wife for Isaac (Gen_24:7; Gen_24:40); in Job_33:23 an angel guides a man in what is right;† [Note: The word used in this passage is not the usual one for angel, though its sense of messenger’ (mçlîz) is the same as that of mal’âkh.] they are more especially the guides of the prophets (1Ki_13:18; 1Ki_19:5 ff., 2Ki_1:3; 2Ki_1:15, Zec_1:9); they bring evil and destruction upon men (2Sa_24:16-17, 2Ki_19:35, Psa_35:6; Psa_78:49, Job_33:22; in Pro_16:14 the wrath of a king is likened to angels of death); on the other hand, they are the protectors of men (Psa_34:8, (7), Psa_91:11), and save them from destruction (Gen_19:15 ff.); their power is superhuman (2Ki_6:17,‡ [Note: Though not specifically stated, angels are obviously referred to here.] cf. Zec_12:8); they report to God what is going on upon the earth (Job_1:6; Job_2:1), for which purpose they are represented as riding on horseback (Zec_1:8-10, cf. Psa_18:11 (10), Isa_19:1§ [Note: Cf. the Walküre in Teutonic mythology.] ); their chief duty above is that of praising God (Gen_28:12, Psa_103:20). Angelic beings seem to be referred to as ‘watchmen’ in Isa_62:6 and Dan_4:14 (17). An early mythological element regarding angels is perhaps re-echoed in such passages as Jdg_5:20, Isa_40:25-26, and elsewhere.
(d) In Ezekiel, angels, under this designation, are never mentioned, though the angelology of this book ehows considerable development; other names are given to them, but their main function, viz. messengers of God, is the same as in the earlier books; for example, in Eze_2:2 it is a ‘spirit,’ instead of an ‘angel,’ who acts as an intermediary being, see, too, Eze_3:12 ff., Eze_11:5 ff.; in Eze_8:1 ff., Eze_40:1 a vision is attributed to ‘the hand of the Lord’; in Eze_40:3 ff., it is a ‘man’ of a supernatural kind who instructs the prophet; and again, in Eze_9:5 ff., ‘men,’ though clearly not of human kind (see Eze_9:11), destroy the wicked in Jerusalem. In Ezk., as well as in Zec., angels take up a very definite position of intermediate beings between God and man, one of their chief functions being that of interpreting visions which Divine action creates in the mind of men; in both these books angels are called ‘men,’ and in both the earlier idea of the ‘Angel of the Lord’ has its counterpart in the prominent position taken up by some particular angel who is the interpreter of visions. In Zec. different orders of angels are for the first time mentioned (Eze_2:3-4, Eze_3:1-6, Eze_4:1). In Daniel there is a further development; the angels are termed ‘watchers’ (Dan_4:13; Dan_4:17), and ‘princes’ (Dan_10:13); they have names, e.g. Michael (Dan_10:13, Eze_12:1), Gabriel (Dan_8:16), and there are special angels (‘princes’) who fight for special nations (Dan_10:20-21). As in Zec. so in Daniel there are different orders among the angels, but in the latter book the different categories are more fully developed.
In the attitude taken up in these later books we may see the link between the earlier belief and its development in post-Biblical Jewish literature. The main factors which contributed to this development were, firstly, Babylon; during the Captivity, Babylonian influence upon the Jews asserted itself in this as well as in other respects; according to Jewish tradition the names of the angels came from Babylon. Secondly, Persian influence was of a marked character in post-exilic times; the Zoroastrian belief that Ormuzd had a host of pure angels of light who surrounded him and fulfilled his commands, was a ready-made development of the Jewish belief, handed down from much earlier times, that angels were the messengers of Jahweh. Later still, a certain amount of Greek influence was also exercised upon Jewish angelology.
2. The Apocrypha.—Some of the characteristics of angels here are identical with some of those found in the OT, viz.: they appear in human form (2Es_1:40), they speak like men (To 2Es_5:6 ff.), they guide men (2Es_5:21), they bring destruction upon men (1Ma_7:41-42); on the other hand, they heal men (Tob_3:17), their power is superhuman (Tob_12:19, Bel 34ff., Three 26), and they praise God (2Es_8:21, Three 37). The angelology of the Apocrypha is, however, far more closely allied to that of Ezk., Zec., and Daniel than the angelology of these to that of the rest of the OT; this will be clearly seen by enumerating briefly the main characteristics of angels as portrayed in the Apocrypha.
In 2 Esdras an angel frequently appears as an instructor of heavenly things; thus in 2Es_10:28 an angel causes Esdras to fall into a trance in order to receive instruction in spiritual matters; in 2Es_2:42, after an angel has instructed Esdras, the latter is commanded to tell others what he had learned; sometimes an angel is identified with God, e.g. in 2Es_5:40-41, 2Es_7:3, but usually there is very distinct differentiation; sometimes the angel seems almost to be the alter ego of Esdras, arguing with himself (cf. 2Es_5:21-22, 2Es_12:3 ff.). In Tob_12:6-15 there are some important details,—here an angel instructs in manner of life, but more striking is the teaching that he brings to remembrance before God the prayers of the faithful, and that he superintends the burial of the dead;* [Note: Cf., in Egyptian belief, the similar functions of Isis and Nephthys.] he has a name, Raphael,† [Note: Names of angels occur also in 2 Esdras, viz.: Jeremiel (2Es_4:36), Phaltiel (2Es_5:16), and Uriel (2Es_10:28).] and is one of the seven holy angels (‘archangels’) who present the prayers of the saints, and who go constantly in and out before the presence of God; that there are ranks among the angels is thus taught here more categorically than in the later Biblical books. Further, the idea of guardian-angels is characteristic of the Apocrypha; that individuals have their guardian-angels is clearly implied in To Tob_5:21, that armies have such is taught in 2Ma_11:6; 2Ma_15:23, while in 2Ma_3:25 ff. occurs a Jewish counterpart of the Roman legend of Castor and Pollux; there is possibly, in Sir_17:17, an indication that nations also have their guardian-angels;* [Note: Cf. this idea in the case of the Angel of the Lord (which see.)] if so, it would be the lineal descendant of the early Israelite belief in national gods. The dealings of angels with men are of a very varied character, for besides the details already enumerated, we have these further points: in Bar_6:3 ff. an angel is to be the means whereby the Israelites in Babylon shall be helped to withstand the temptation to worship the false gods of the land; in To Bar_6:7; Bar_6:16-17 an angel describes a method whereby an evil spirit may be driven away; in Bar_6:8 an angel gives a remedy for healing blindness; in Bel 34ff. an angel takes the prophet Habakkuk by the hair and carries him from Judah to Babylonia, in order that he may share his dinner with Daniel in the lion’s den; and, once more, in Three 26, 27 an angel smites the flame of the furnace into which the three heroes had been cast, and makes a cool wind to blow in its place (cf. Dan_3:23 ff.).
It will thus be seen that the activities of angels are, according to the Apocrypha, of a very varied character. One further important fact remains to be noted: they are almost invariably the benefactors of man, their power far transcends that of man, sometimes an angel is identified with God, yet in spite of this, with one possible exception, 2Ma_4:10-13, no worship is ever offered to them; this is true also of the OT, excepting when an angel is identified with Jahweh; in the NT there is at least one case of the worship of an angel, Rev_22:8-9, cf. Col_2:18. The angelology of the Apocrypha is expanded to an almost unlimited extent in later Jewish writings, more especially in the Book of Enoch, in the Targums, and in the Talmud; but with these we are not concerned here.
3. New Testament.—(a) In the Gospels it is necessary to differentiate between what is said by Christ Himself on the subject and what is narrated by the Evangelists. Christ’s teaching regarding angels may be summed up thus: Their dwelling-place is in heaven (Mat_18:10, Luk_12:8-9, Joh_1:51); they are superior to men, but in the world to come the righteous shall be on an equality with them (Luk_20:36); they carry away the souls of the righteous to a place of rest (Luk_16:22); they are (as seems to be implied) of neither sex (Mat_22:30); they are very numerous (Mat_26:53); they will appear with Christ at His second coming [it is in connexion with this that most of Christ’s references to angels are made Mat_13:39; Mat_16:27; Mat_24:31; Mat_25:31, Mar_8:38, Luk_9:26, cf. Joh_1:51]; there are bad as well as good angels (Mat_25:41), though it is usually of the latter that mention is made; they are limited in knowledge (Mat_24:36); there are guardian-angels of children (Mat_18:10); they rejoice at the triumph of good (Luk_15:10). Turning to the Evangelists, we find that the main function of angels is to deliver God’s messages to men (e.g. Mat_1:20; Mat_2:10; Mat_28:5, Luk_1:28; Luk_24:23). On only one occasion are angels brought into direct contact with Christ (Mat_4:11, with the parallel passage Mar_1:13), and it is noteworthy that in the corresponding verse in the Third Gospel (Luk_4:13) there is no mention of angels. Thus the main differences between Christ’s teaching on angels and that which went before are that they are not active among men, their abode and their work are rather in the realms above; they are not the intermediaries between God and men, for it is either Christ Himself, or the Holy Spirit, who speaks directly to men; much emphasis is laid on their presence with Christ at His second coming. On the other hand, the earlier belief is reflected in the Gospel angelophanles, which are a marked characteristic of the Nativity and Resurrection narratives; though here, too, a distinct and significant difference is found in that the angel is always clearly differentiated from God.
(b) In the Acts there seems to be a return to the earlier beliefs, angelic appearances to men being frequently mentioned (Act_5:19; Act_7:30; Act_11:13; Act_12:8; etc.); their activity in the affairs of men is in somewhat startling contrast with the silence of Christ on the subject. It is possible that most of the references in the Acts will permit of an explanation in the direction of the angelical appearances being subjective visions (e.g. Act_8:26, Act_10:3, Act_27:23-24); but such occurrences as are recorded in Act_5:19-20, Act_12:7 (both belonging to the Petrine ministry) would require a different explanation; while that mentioned in Act_12:23 would seem to be the popular explanation of an event which could easily be accounted for now in other ways. The mention, in Act_12:15, of what is called St. Peter’s ‘angel’ gives some insight into the current popular views concerning angels; it seems clear that a distinction was made between an angel and a spirit (Act_23:8-9).
(c) In the Pauline Epistles the origin of angels is stated to be their creation by Christ (Col_1:16); as in the Acts, they are concerned with the affairs of men (1Co_4:9; 1Co_11:10, Rom_8:38, 1Ti_5:21); at the same time St. Paul emphasizes the teaching of Christ that God speaks to men directly, and not through the intermediacy of angels (Gal_1:12, cf. Act_9:5); in Col_2:18 a warning against the worshipping of angels is uttered, with which compare the worshipping of demons in 1Co_10:21; in accordance with Christ’s teaching St. Paul speaks of the presence of angels at the Second Coming (2Th_1:7).
(d) In the Ep. to the Hebrews the standpoint, as would be expected, is that of the OT, while in the Apocalypse the angelology is that common to other apocalyptic literature (cf. also the archangel of Jud_1:9).
W. O. E. Oesterley.
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible
Edited by James Hastings, D.D. Published in 1909

a spiritual, intelligent substance, the first in rank and dignity among created beings The word angel, αγγελος, is not properly a denomination of nature but of office; denoting as much as nuncius, messenger, a person employed to carry one's orders, or declare his will. Thus it is St. Paul represents angels, Heb_1:14, where he calls them “ministering spirits;” and yet custom has prevailed so much, that angel is now commonly taken for the denomination of a particular order of spiritual beings, of great understanding and power, superior to the souls or spirits of men. Some of these are spoken of in Scripture in such a manner as plainly to signify that they are real beings, of a spiritual nature, of high power, perfection, dignity, and happiness. Others of them are distinguished as not having kept their first station, Jud_1:6. These are represented as evil spirits, enemies of God, and intent on mischief. The devil as the head of them, and they as his angels, are represented as the rulers of the darkness of this world, or spiritual wickednesses, or wicked spirits, τα πνευματικα της πονηριυς εν τοις επουρανιοις, Eph_6:12; which may not be unfitly rendered, “the spiritual managers of opposition to the kingdom of God.”
The existence of angels is supposed in all religions, though it is incapable of being proved a priori. Indeed, the ancient Sadducees are represented as denying all spirits; and yet the Samaritans, and Caraites, who are reputed Sadducees, openly allowed them: witness Abusaid, the author of an Arabic version of the Pentateuch; and Aaron, a Caraite Jew, in his comment on the Pentateuch; both extant in manuscript in the king of France's library. In the Alcoran we find frequent mention of angels. The Mussulmen believe them of different orders or degrees, and to be destined for different employments both in heaven and on earth. They attribute exceedingly great power to the angel Gabriel, as that he is able to descend in the space of an hour from heaven to earth; to overturn a mountain with a single feather of his wing, &c. The angel Asrael, they suppose, is appointed to take the souls of such as die; and another angel, named Esraphil, they tell us, stands with a trumpet ready in his mouth to proclaim the day of judgment.
The Heathen philosophers and poets were also agreed as to the existence of intelligent beings, superior to man; as is shown by St. Cyprian in his treatise of the vanity of idols; from the testimonies of Plato, Socrates, Trismegistus, &c. They were acknowledged under different appellations; the Greeks calling them daemons, and the Romans genii, or lares. Epicurus seems to have been the only one among the old philosophers who absolutely rejected them.
Authors are not so unanimous about the nature as about the existence of angels. Clemens Alexandrinus believed they had bodies; which was also the opinion of Origen, Caesarius, Tertullian, and several others. Athanasius, St. Basil, St. Gregory Nicene, St. Cyril, St. Chrysostom, &c, held them to be mere spirits. It has been the more current opinion, especially in later times, that they are substances entirely spiritual, who can, at any time, assume bodies, and appear in human or other shapes. Ecclesiastical writers make a hierarchy of nine orders of angels. Others have distributed angels into nine orders, according to the names by which they are called in Scripture, and reduced these orders into three hierarchies; to the first of which belong seraphim, cherubim, and thrones; to the second, dominions, virtues, and powers; and to the third, principalities, archangels, and angels. The Jews reckon four orders or companies of angels, each headed by an archangel; the first order being that of Michael; the second, of Gabriel; the third, of Uriel; and the fourth, of Raphael. Following the Scripture account, we shall find mention made of different orders of these superior beings; for such a distinction of orders seems intimated in the names given to different classes. Thus we have thrones, dominions, principalities, or princedoms, powers, authorities, living ones, cherubim and seraphim. That some of these titles may indicate the same class of angels is probable; but that they all should be but different appellations of one common and equal order is improbable. We learn also from Scripture, that they dwell in the immediate presence of God; that they “excel in strength;” that they are immortal; and that they are the agents through which God very often accomplishes his special purposes of judgment and mercy. Nothing is more frequent in Scripture than the missions and appearances of good and bad angels, whom God employed to declare his will; to correct, teach, reprove, and comfort. God gave the law to Moses, and appeared to the old patriarchs, by the mediation of angels, who represented him, and spoke in his name, Act_7:30; Act_7:35; Gal_3:19; Heb_13:2.
Though the Jews, in general, believed the existence of angels, there was a sect among them, namely, the Sadducees, who denied the existence of all spirits whatever, God only excepted, Act_23:8. Before the Babylonish captivity, the Hebrews seem not to have known the names of any angel. The Talmudists say they brought the names of angels from Babylon. Tobit, who is thought to have resided in Nineveh some time before the captivity, mentions the angel Raphael, Tob_3:17; Tob_11:2; Tob_11:7; and Daniel, who lived at Babylon some time after Tobit, has taught us the names of Michael and Gabriel, Dan_8:16; Dan_9:21; Dan_10:21. In the New Testament, we find only the two latter mentioned by name.
There are various opinions as to the time when the angels were created. Some think this took place when our heavens and the earth were made. For this opinion, however, there is no just foundation in the Mosaic account. Others think that angels existed long before the formation of our solar system; and Scripture seems to favour this opinion, Job_38:4; Job_38:7, where God says, “Where wast thou when I laid the foundations of the earth?— and all the sons of God shouted for joy.” Though it be a universal opinion that angels are of a spiritual and incorporeal nature, yet some of the fathers, misled by a passage in Gen_6:2, where it is said, “The sons of God saw the daughters of men, that they were fair, and they took them wives of all which they chose,” imagined them to be corporeal, and capable of sensual pleasures. But, without noticing all the wild reveries which have been propagated by bold or ignorant persons, let it suffice to observe, that by “the sons of God” we are evidently to understand the descendants of Seth, who, for the great piety wherein they continued for some time, were so called; and that “the daughters of men” were the progeny of wicked Cain As to the doctrine of tutelary or guarding angels, presiding over the affairs of empires, nations, provinces, and particular persons, though received by the later Jews, it appears to be wholly Pagan in its origin, and to have no countenance in the Scriptures. The passages in Daniel brought to favour this notion are capable of a much better explanation; and when our Lord declares that the “angels” of little children “do always behold the face of God,” he either speaks of children as being the objects of the general ministry of angels, or, still more probably, by angels he there means the disembodied spirits of children; for that the Jews called disembodied spirits by the name of angels, appears from Act_12:15.
On this question of guardian angels, Bishop Horsley observes: “That the holy angels are often employed by God in his government of this sublunary world, is indeed to be clearly proved by holy writ. That they have power over the matter of the universe, analogous to the powers over it which men possess, greater in extent, but still limited, is a thing which might reasonably be supposed, if it were not declared. But it seems to be confirmed by many passages of holy writ; from which it seems also evident that they are occasionally, for certain specific purposes, commissioned to exercise those powers to a prescribed extent. What the evil angels possessed before their fall the like powers, which they are still occasionally permitted to exercise for the punishment of wicked nations, seems also evident. That they have a power over the human sensory, which they are occasionally permitted to exercise, and by means of which they may inflict diseases, suggest evil thoughts, and be the instruments of temptation, must also be admitted. But all this amounts not to any thing of a discretional authority placed in the hands of tutelar angels, or to an authority to advise the Lord God with respect to the measures of his government. Confidently I deny that a single text is to be found in holy writ, which, rightly understood, gives the least countenance to the abominable doctrine of such a participation of the holy angels in God's government of the world. In what manner then, it may be asked, are the holy angels made at all subservient to the purposes of God's government? This question is answered by St. Paul in his Epistle to the Hebrews, in the last verse of the first chapter; and this is the only passage in the whole Bible in which we have any thing explicit upon the office and employment of angels: ‘Are they not all,' saith he, ‘ministering spirits, sent forth to minister for them that shall be heirs of salvation?' They are all, however high in rank and order, nothing more than ‘ministering spirits,' or, literally, ‘serving spirits;' not invested with authority of their own, but ‘sent forth,' occasionally sent forth, to do such service as may be required of them, ‘for them that shall be heirs of salvation.'“
The exact number of angels is no where mentioned in Scripture; but it is always represented as very great. Dan_7:10, says of the Ancient of Days, “A fiery stream came from before him; thousand thousands ministered unto him, and ten thousand times ten thousand stood before him.” Jesus Christ says, that his heavenly Father could have given him more than twelve legions of angels, that is, more than seventy-two thousand, Mat_26:53; and the Psalmist declares, that the chariots of God are twenty thousand, even thousands of angels, Psa_68:17. These are all intended not to express any exact number, but indefinitely a very large one.
Though all the angels were created alike good, yet Jude informs us, verse Jud_1:6, that some of them “kept not their first estate, but left their own habitation,” and these God hath “reserved in everlasting chains under darkness, unto the judgment of the great day.” Speculations on the cause and occasion of their fall are all vain and trifling. Milton is to be read on this subject, as on others, not as a divine, but as a poet. All we know, is, that they are not in their first “estate,” or in their original place; that this was their own fault, for “they left their own habitation;” that they are in chains, yet with liberty to tempt; and that they are reserved to the general judgment.
Dr. Prideaux observes, that the minister of the synagogue, who officiated in offering the public prayers, being the mouth of the congregation, delegated by them, as their representative, messenger, or angel, to address God in prayer for them, was in Hebrew called sheliack-zibbor, that is, the angel of the church; and that from hence the chief ministers of the seven churches of Asia are in the Revelation, by a name borrowed from the synagogue, called angels of those churches.
Biblical and Theological Dictionary by Richard Watson
PRINTER 1849.

ān?jel (מלאך, mal'ākh; Septuagint and New Testament, ἄγγελος, ággelos):
I. Definition and Scripture Terms
II. Angels in Old Testament
1. Nature, Appearances and Functions
2. The Angelic Host
3. The Angel of the Theophany
III. Angels in New Testament
1. Appearances
2. The Teaching of Jesus about Angels
3. Other New Testament References
IV. Development of the Doctrine
V. The Reality of Angels
Literature

I. Definition and Scripture Terms
The word angel is applied in Scripture to an order of supernatural or heavenly beings whose business it is to act as God's messengers to men, and as agents who carry out His will. Both in Hebrew and Greek the word is applied to human messengers (1Ki_19:2; Luk_7:24); in Hebrew it is used in the singular to denote a Divine messenger, and in the plural for human messengers, although there are exceptions to both usages. It is applied to the prophet Haggai (Hag_1:13), to the priest (Mal_2:7), and to the messenger who is to prepare the way of the Lord (Mal_3:1). Other Hebrew words and phrases applied to angels are benē hā-'ĕlōhı̄m (Gen_6:2, Gen_6:4; Job_1:6; Job_2:1) and benē 'ēlı̄m (Psa_29:1; Psa_89:6), i.e. sons of the 'ĕlōhı̄m or 'ēlı̄m; this means, according to a common Hebrew usage, members of the class called 'ĕlōhı̄m or 'ēlı̄m, the heavenly powers. It seems doubtful whether the word 'ĕlōhı̄m, standing by itself, is ever used to describe angels, although Septuagint so translates it in a few passages. The most notable instance is Psa_8:5; where the Revised Version (British and American) gives, ?Thou hast made him but little lower than God,? with the English Revised Version, margin reading of ?the angels? for ?God? (compare Heb_2:7, Heb_2:9); ḳedhōshı̄m ?holy ones? (Psa_89:5, Psa_89:7), a name suggesting the fact that they belong to God; ‛ı̄r, ‛ı̄rı̄m, ?watcher,? ?watchers? (Dan_4:13, Dan_4:17, Dan_4:23). Other expressions are used to designate angels collectively: ṣōdh, ?council? (Psa_89:7), where the reference may be to an inner group of exalted angels; ‛ēdhāh and ḳāhāl, ?congregation? (Psa_82:1; Psa_89:5); and finally cābhā', cebhā'ōth, ?host,? ?hosts,? as in the familiar phrase ?the God of hosts.?
In New Testament the word ággelos, when it refers to a Divine messenger, is frequently accompanied by some phrase which makes this meaning clear, e.g. ?the angels of heaven? (Mat_24:36). Angels belong to the ?heavenly host? (Luk_2:13). In reference to their nature they are called ?spirits? (Heb_1:14). Paul evidently referred to the ordered ranks of supra-mundane beings in a group of words that are found in various combinations, namely, archaı́, ?principalities,? exousı́ai, ?powers,? thrónoi, ?thrones,? kuriótētes, ?dominions,? and dunámeis, also translated ?powers.? The first four are apparently used in a good sense in Col_1:16, where it is said that all these beings were created through Christ and unto Him; in most of the other passages in which words from this group occur, they seem to represent evil powers. We are told that our wrestling is against them (Eph_6:12), and that Christ triumphs over the principalities and powers (Col_2:15; compare Rom_8:38; 1Co_15:24). In two passages the word archággelos, ?archangel? or chief angel, occurs: ?the voice of the archangel? (1Th_4:16), and ?Michael the archangel? (Jud_1:9).
II. Angels in Old Testament
1. Nature, Appearances and Functions
Everywhere in the Old Testament the existence of angels is assumed. The creation of angels is referred to in Psa_148:2, Psa_148:5 (compare Col_1:16). They were present at the creation of the world, and were so filled with wonder and gladness that they ?shouted for joy? (Job_38:7). Of their nature we are told nothing. In general they are simply regarded as embodiments of their mission. Though presumably the holiest of created beings, they are charged by God with folly (Job_4:18), and we are told that ?he putteth no trust in his holy ones? (Job_15:15). References to the fall of the angels are only found in the obscure and probably corrupt passage Gen_6:1-4, and in the interdependent passages 2Pe_2:4 and Jud_1:6, which draw their inspiration from the Apocryphal book of Enoch. Demons are mentioned (see DEMONS); and although Satan appears among the sons of God (Job_1:6; Job_2:1), there is a growing tendency in later writers to attribute to him a malignity that is all his own (see SATAN).
As to their outward appearance, it is evident that they bore the human form, and could at times be mistaken for men (Eze_9:2; Gen_18:2, Gen_18:16). There is no hint that they ever appeared in female form. The conception of angels as winged beings, so familiar in Christian art, finds no support in Scripture (except, perhaps Dan_9:21; Rev_14:6, where angels are represented as ?flying?). The cherubim and seraphim (see CHERUB; SERAPHIM) are represented as winged (Exo_25:20; Isa_6:2); winged also are the symbolic living creatures of Ezek (Eze_1:6; compare Rev_4:8).
As above stated, angels are messengers and instruments of the Divine will. As a rule they exercise no influence in the physical sphere. In several instances, however, they are represented as destroying angels: two angels are commissioned to destroy Sodom (Gen_19:13); when David numbers the people, an angel destroys them by pestilence (2Sa_24:16); it is by an angel that the Assyrian army is destroyed (2Ki_19:35); and Ezekiel hears six angels receiving the command to destroy those who were sinful in Jerusalem (Eze_9:1, Eze_9:5, Eze_9:7). In this connection should be noted the expression ?angels of evil,? i.e. angels that bring evil upon men from God and execute His judgments (Psa_78:49; compare 1Sa_16:14). Angels appear to Jacob in dreams (Gen_28:12; Gen_31:11). The angel who meets Balaam is visible first to the ass, and not to the rider (Nu 22ff). Angels interpret God's will, showing man what is right for him (Job_33:23). The idea of angels as caring for men also appears (Psa_91:11 f), although the modern conception of the possession by each man of a special guardian angel is not found in Old Testament.
2. The Angelic Host
The phrase ?the host of heaven? is applied to the stars, which were sometimes worshipped by idolatrous Jews (Jer_33:22; 2Ki_21:3; Zep_1:5); the name is applied to the company of angels because of their countless numbers (compare Dan_7:10) and their glory. They are represented as standing on the right and left hand of Yahweh (1Ki_22:19). Hence God, who is over them all, is continually called throughout Old Testament ?the God of hosts,? ?Yahweh of hosts,? ?Yahweh God of hosts?; and once ?the prince of the host? (Dan_8:11). One of the principal functions of the heavenly host is to be ever praising the name of the Lord (Psa_103:21; Psa_148:1 f). In this host there are certain figures that stand out prominently, and some of them are named. The angel who appears to Joshua calls himself ?prince of the host of Yahweh? (Jos_5:14 f). The glorious angel who interprets to Daniel the vision which he saw in the third year of Cyrus (Dan_10:5), like the angel who interprets the vision in the first year of Belshazzar (Dan_7:16), is not named; but other visions of the same prophet were explained to him by the angel Gabriel, who is called ?the man Gabriel,? and is described as speaking with ?a man's voice? (Dan_9:21; Dan_8:15 f). In Daniel we find occasional reference made to ?princes?: ?the prince of Persia,? ?the prince of Greece? (Dan_10:20). These are angels to whom is entrusted the charge of, and possibly the rule over, certain peoples. Most notable among them is Michael, described as ?one of the chief princes,? ?the great prince who standeth for the children of thy people,? and, more briefly, ?your prince? (Dan_10:13; Dan_12:1; Dan_10:21); Michael is therefore regarded as the patron-angel of the Jews. In Apocrypha Raphael, Uriel and Jeremiel are also named. Of Raphael it is said (Tobit 12:15) that he is ?one of the seven holy angels who present the prayers of the saints? to God (compare Rev_8:2, ?the seven angels that stand before God?). It is possible that this group of seven is referred to in the above-quoted phrase, ?one of the chief princes?. Some (notably Kosters) have maintained that the expressions ?the sons of the 'ĕlōhı̄m,? God's ?council? and ?congregation,? refer to the ancient gods of the heathen, now degraded and wholly subordinated to Yahweh. This rather daring speculation has little support in Scripture; but we find traces of a belief that the patron-angels of the nations have failed in establishing righteousness within their allotted sphere on earth, and that they will accordingly be punished by Yahweh their over-Lord (Isa_24:21 f; Psa_82:1-8; compare Psa_58:1 f the Revised Version, margin; compare Jud_1:6).
3. The Angel of the Theophany
This angel is spoken of as ?the angel of Yahweh,? and ?the angel of the presence (or face) of Yahweh.? The following passages contain references to this angel: Gen_16:7 - the angel and Hagar; Gen 18 - Abraham intercedes with the angel for Sodom; Gen_22:11 - the angel interposes to prevent the sacrifice of Isaac; Gen_24:7, Gen_24:40 - Abraham sends Eliezer and promises the angel's protection; Gen_31:11 - the angel who appears to Jacob says ?I am the God of Beth-el?; Gen_32:24 - Jacob wrestles with the angel and says, ?I have seen God face to face?; Gen_48:15 f - Jacob speaks of God and the angel as identical; Ex 3 (compare Act_7:30) - the angel appears to Moses in the burning bush; Exo_13:21; Exo_14:19 (compare Num_20:16) - God or the angel leads Israel out of Egypt; Exo_23:20 - the people are commanded to obey the angel; Ex 32:34 through 33:17 (compare Isa_63:9) - Moses pleads for the presence of God with His people; Josh 5:13 through 6:2 - the angel appears to Joshua; Jdg_2:1-5 - the angel speaks to the people; Jdg_6:11 - the angel appears to Gideon.
A study of these passages shows that while the angel and Yahweh are at times distinguished from each other, they are with equal frequency, and in the same passages, merged into each other. How is this to be explained? It is obvious that these apparitions cannot be the Almighty Himself, whom no man hath seen, or can see. In seeking the explanation, special attention should be paid to two of the passages above cited. In Exo_23:20 God promises to send an angel before His people to lead them to the promised land; they are commanded to obey him and not to provoke him ?for he will not pardon your transgression: for my name is in him.? Thus the angel can forgive sin, which only God can do, because God's name, i.e. His character and thus His authority, are in the angel. Further, in the passage Ex 32:34 through 33:17 Moses intercedes for the people after their first breach of the covenant; God responds by promising, ?Behold mine angel shall go before thee?; and immediately after God says, ?I will not go up in the midst of thee.? In answer to further pleading, God says, ?My presence shall go with thee, and I will give thee rest.? Here a clear distinction is made between an ordinary angel, and the angel who carries with him God's presence. The conclusion may be summed up in the words of Davidson in his Old Testament Theology: ?In particular providences one may trace the presence of Yahweh in influence and operation; in ordinary angelic appearances one may discover Yahweh present on some side of His being, in some attribute of His character; in the angel of the Lord He is fully present as the covenant God of His people, to redeem them.? The question still remains, Who is theophanic angel? To this many answers have been given, of which the following may be mentioned: (1) This angel is simply an angel with a special commission; (2) He may be a momentary descent of God into visibility; (3) He may be the Logos, a kind of temporary preincarnation of the second person of the Trinity. Each has its difficulties, but the last is certainly the most tempting to the mind. Yet it must be remembered that at best these are only conjectures that touch on a great mystery. It is certain that from the beginning God used angels in human form, with human voices, in order to communicate with man; and the appearances of the angel of the Lord, with his special redemptive relation to God's people, show the working of that Divine mode of self-revelation which culminated in the coming of the Saviour, and are thus a fore-shadowing of, and a preparation for, the full revelation of God in Jesus Christ. Further than this, it is not safe to go.
III. Angels in New Testament
1. Appearances
Nothing is related of angels in New Testament which is inconsistent with the teaching of Old Testament on the subject. Just as they are specially active in the beginning of Old Testament history, when God's people is being born, so they appear frequently in connection with the birth of Jesus, and again when a new order of things begins with the resurrection. An angel appears three times in dreams to Joseph (Mat_1:20; Mat_2:13, Mat_2:19). The angel Gabriel appears to Zacharias, and then to Mary in the annunciation (Lk 1). An angel announces to the shepherds the birth of Jesus, and is joined by a ?multitude of the heavenly host,? praising God in celestial song (Luk_2:8). When Jesus is tempted, and again during the agony at Gethsemane, angels appear to Him to strengthen His soul (Mat_4:11; Luk_22:43). The verse which tells how an angel came down to trouble the pool (Joh_5:4) is now omitted from the text as not being genuine. An angel descends to roll away the stone from the tomb of Jesus (Mat_28:2); angels are seen there by certain women (Luk_24:23) and (two) by Mary Magdalene (Joh_20:12). An angel releases the apostles from prison, directs Philip, appears to Peter in a dream, frees him from prison, smites Herod with sickness, appears to Paul in a dream (Act_5:19; Act_8:26; Act_10:3; Act_12:7; Act_12:23; Act_27:23). Once they appear clothed in white; they are so dazzling in appearance as to terrify beholders; hence they begin their message with the words ?Fear not? (Mat_28:2-5).
2. The Teaching of Jesus About Angels
It is quite certain that our Lord accepted the main teachings of Old Testament about angels, as well as the later Jewish belief in good and bad angels. He speaks of the ?angels in heaven? (Mat_22:30), and of ?the devil and his angels? (Mat_25:41). According to our Lord the angels of God are holy (Mar_8:38); they have no sex or sensuous desires (Mat_22:30); they have high intelligence, but they know not the time of the Second Coming (Mat_24:36); they carry (in a parable) the soul of Lazarus to Abraham's bosom (Luk_16:22); they could have been summoned to the aid of our Lord, had He so desired (Mat_26:53); they will accompany Him at the Second Coming (Mat_25:31) and separate the righteous from the wicked (Mat_13:41, Mat_13:49). They watch with sympathetic eyes the fortunes of men, rejoicing in the repentance of a sinner (Luk_15:10; compare 1Pe_1:12; Eph_3:10; 1Co_4:9); and they will hear the Son of Man confessing or denying those who have confessed or denied Him before men (Luk_12:8 f). The angels of the presence of God, who do not appear to correspond to our conception of guardian angels, are specially interested in God's little ones (Mat_18:10). Finally, the existence of angels is implied in the Lord's Prayer in the petition, ?Thy will be done, as in heaven, so on earth? (Mat_6:10).
3. Other New Testament References
Paul refers to the ranks of angels (?principalities, powers? etc.) only in order to emphasize the complete supremacy of Jesus Christ. He teaches that angels will be judged by the saints (1Co_6:3). He attacks the incipient Gnosticism of Asia Minor by forbidding the, worship of angels (Col_2:18). He speaks of God's angels as ?elect,? because they are included in the counsels of Divine love (1Ti_5:21). When Paul commands the women to keep their heads covered in church because of the angels (1Co_11:10) he probably means that the angels, who watch all human affairs with deep interest, would be pained to see any infraction of the laws of modesty. In Heb_1:14 angels are (described as ministering spirits engaged in the service of the saints. Peter also emphasizes the supremacy of our Lord over all angelic beings (1Pe_3:22). The references to angels in 2 Peter and Jude are colored by contact with Apocrypha literature. In Revelation, where the references are obviously symbolic, there is very frequent mention of angels. The angels of the seven churches (Rev_1:20) are the guardian angels or the personifications of these churches. The worship of angels is also forbidden (Rev_22:8 f). Specially interesting is the mention of elemental angels - ?the angel of the waters? (Rev_16:5), and the angel ?that hath power over fire? (Rev_14:18; compare Rev_7:1; Rev_19:17). Reference is also made to the ?angel of the bottomless pit,? who is called ABADDON or APOLLYON (which see), evidently an evil angel (Rev_9:11 the King James Version, the Revised Version (British and American) ?abyss?). In Rev_12:7 we are told that there was war between Michael with his angels and the dragon with his angels.
IV. Development of the Doctrine
In the childhood of the race it was easy to believe in God, and He was very near to the soul. In Paradise there is no thought of angels; it is God Himself who walks in the garden. A little later the thought of angels appears, but, God has not gone away, and as ?the angel of Yahweh? He appears to His people and redeems them. In these early times the Jews believed that there were multitudes of angels, not yet divided in thought into good and bad; these had no names or personal characteristics, but were simply embodied messages. Till the time of the captivity the Jewish angelology shows little development. During that dark period they came into close contact with a polytheistic people, only to be more deeply confirmed in their monotheism thereby. They also became acquainted with the purer faith of the Persians, and in all probability viewed the tenets of Zoroastrianism with a more favorable eye, because of the great kindness of Cyrus to their nation. There are few direct traces of Zoroastrianism in the later angelology of the Old Testament. It is not even certain that the number seven as applied to the highest group of angels is Persian in its origin; the number seven was not wholly disregarded by the Jews. One result of the contact was that the idea of a hierarchy of the angels was more fully developed. The conception in Dan of angels as ?watchers,? and the idea of patron-princes or angel-guardians of nations may be set down to Persian influence. It is probable that contact with the Persians helped the Jews to develop ideas already latent in their minds. According to Jewish tradition, the names of the angels came from Babylon. By this time the consciousness of sin had grown more intense in the Jewish mind, and God had receded to an immeasurable distance; the angels helped to fill the gap between God and man.
The more elaborate conceptions of Daniel and Zechariah are further developed in Apocrypha, especially in 2 Esdras, Tobit and 2 Macc.
In the New Testament we find that there is little further development; and by the Spirit of God its writers were saved from the absurdly puerile teachings of contemporary Rabbinism. We find that the Sadducees, as contrasted with the Pharisees, did not believe in angels or spirits (Act_23:8). We may conclude that the Sadducees, with their materialistic standpoint, and denial of the resurrection, regarded angels merely as symbolical expressions of God's actions. It is noteworthy in this connection that the great priestly document (Priestly Code, P) makes no mention of angels. The Book of Revelation naturally shows a close kinship to the books of Ezekiel and Daniel.
Regarding the rabbinical developments of angelology, some beautiful, some extravagant, some grotesque, but all fanciful, it is not necessary here to speak. The Essenes held an esoteric doctrine of angels, in which most scholars find the germ of the Gnostic eons.
V. The Reality of Angels
A belief in angels, if not indispensable to the faith of a Christian, has its place there. In such a belief there is nothing unnatural or contrary to reason. Indeed, the warm welcome which human nature has always given to this thought, is an argument in its favor. Why should there not be such an order of beings, if God so willed it? For the Christian the whole question turns on the weight to be attached to the words of our Lord. All are agreed that He teaches the existence, reality, and activity of angelic beings. Was He in error because of His human limitations? That is a conclusion which it is very hard for the Christian to draw, and we may set it aside. Did He then adjust His teaching to popular belief, knowing that what He said was not true? This explanation would seem to impute deliberate untruth to our Lord, and must equally be set aside. So we find ourselves restricted to the conclusion that we have the guaranty of Christ's word for the existence of angels; for most Christians that will settle the question.
The visible activity of angels has come to an end, because their mediating work is done; Christ has founded the kingdom of the Spirit, and God's Spirit speaks directly to the spirit of man. This new and living way has been opened up to us by Jesus Christ, upon whom faith can yet behold the angels of God ascending and descending. Still they watch the lot of man, and rejoice in his salvation; still they join in the praise and adoration of God, the Lord of hosts, still can they be regarded as ?ministering spirits sent forth to do service for the sake of them that shall inherit salvation.?
Literature
All Old Testament and New Testament theologies contain discussions. Among the older books Oehler's Old Testament Theology and Hengstenberg's Christology of Old Testament (for ?angel of Yahweh?) and among modern ones Davidson's Old Testament Theology are specially valuable. The ablest supporter of theory that the ?sons of the Elohim? are degraded gods is Kosters. ?Het onstaan der Angelologie onder Israel,? TT 1876. See also articles on ?Angel? in HDB (by Davidson), EB, DCG, Jewish Encyclopedia, RE (by Cremer). Cremer's Biblico-Theological New Testament Lexicon should be consulted under the word ?aggelos.? For Jewish beliefs see also Edersheim's Life and Times of Jesus, II, Appendix xiii. On the Pauline angelology see Everling, Die paulinische Angelologie. On the general subject see Godet, Biblical Studies; Mozley, The Word, chapter lix, and Latham, A Service of Angels.
International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
PRINTER 1915.

Gen_16:7 (b) This heavenly person probably was the Holy Spirit of GOD because He is the Lord of the harvest. Some think that this person was the Lord JESUS. Since the Holy Spirit is the Lord of the harvest, it seems that this person must be the Spirit, because the passage refers to the harvest of lives that was to follow in Hagar's experience. It certainly is one of the Persons of the Godhead, because He said in verse 10 "I will multiply thy seed." In Gen_16:13 she calls Him Lord. This indicates clearly that He was one of the persons of the Trinity. The name that she gave to this Lord was EI-Shaddai which means "The God of the Breast," or "The God who is enough."

Gen_22:11 (c) This person was probably a genuine angel out of Heaven. He lays no claim to deity, and does not affirm his authority to do anything. The message in verse Gen_22:16 of this chapter evidently is a quotation of the GOD of Heaven, and is not a message from the angel. Some, however, think that the angel in verse Gen_22:15 is one of the persons of the Godhead, and that He Himself was making the statement found in verse Gen_22:16.

Gen_24:40 (b) Here the angel is undoubtedly the Holy Spirit who leads the child of GOD in the ways of the Lord and brings about His desire in the world. This would seem to be confirmed by the statement in verse Gen_24:7 of this chapter.

Gen_48:16 (a) This portion brings before us the three Persons of the Trinity. The first mention of GOD in verse Gen_48:15 refers to the Father. The second mention of GOD probably refers to the Holy Spirit. The third mention in which we read "The angel which redeemed" must be the Lord JESUS. The Jews in Old Testament days were Trinitarians. They all believed that there were three persons in the Godhead. Not until several centuries after CHRIST did the Jews become Unitarians. Most Jews have always believed that GOD had a Son who was to be the Messiah. They did not believe, however, that JESUS was that Son.

Jdg_5:23 (b) This angel undoubtedly was the Holy Spirit. His message was in reference to the failure of the inhabitants of Meraz to come to the help of Barak when Israel was fighting the Canaanites. We must remember that the Holy Spirit curses as well as blesses. We find this truth in Isa_40:7, as well as in other places.

Act_8:26 (b) This one was probably the Holy Spirit who directed Philip as to his new place of service. Philip had just conducted a great campaign which was most successful, but now the Spirit took him away from that work to deal with one man down on the road to Gaza. Verse Act_8:29 indicates clearly that it was the Holy Spirit who was directing Philip in all his service and ministry. We would expect Him to do so because He is the Lord of the harvest.

Act_10:7 (a) The angel who spoke to Cornelius was the Holy Spirit. Verse Act_10:30 reveals that this one was in the form of a man, looked like a man, had the shape of a man, and wore the clothing of a man. The angel in verse 7 who was the man in verse 30 is identified in verse Act_10:19 as the Holy Spirit. As the Lord of the harvest He told the seeking sinner Cornelius to send for the evangelist Peter. The Spirit came to Peter who wanted to be used of GOD and told him where to go to find a troubled soul. The Spirit said to Peter "Behold, three men seek thee; go down with them doubting nothing, for I sent them." The Holy Spirit Himself identifies the man in bright clothing as being Himself. The Spirit of GOD has a human form, as do the other two persons of the Trinity. He was seen plainly and rather frequently in both the days of the Old Testament and the New.

2Co_11:14 (a) The passage clearly states that Satan, the Devil, is an angel of light. He takes the place of being a very good and holy person. He is called a minister of righteousness. His business is to get people to be good in order to be saved. He leads men to devise and design many kinds of religion to keep sinners away from the Saviour. He leads women to invent religions of an aesthetic character which presents beautiful phraseology, and sweet, lovely ideas, all of which is intended to keep the hearts and lives of the people away from JESUS CHRIST and His saving power. He never suggests that anyone will be saved by getting drunk, or gambling, or living wickedly. He knows very well that this philosophy would not appeal to the human mind. He therefore sets about to arrange a religion of good works and self-righteousness as a substitute for the Person and work of the Lord JESUS. We should be on the watch for every religion that exalts man's goodness, and detracts from the personal glory of CHRIST JESUS.

Heb_13:2 (b) The angels referred to in this passage possibly may be the Lord JESUS and the Holy Spirit. They must have been the ones who came to visit Abraham and afterwards went to Sodom. They accepted the worship of Abraham and therefore they seemed to be two persons of the Trinity. It is not at all clear who the third person was. He might have been one of the archangels or another angel. Some think that all three Persons of the Trinity were there.

Rev_1:20 (b) This word is probably the title given to the leader or the shepherd or the pastor of each of the seven churches mentioned in chapters 2 and 3. The messages were sent to these seven men who in turn were to instruct the church concerning GOD's Word. It seems as though the leader is held responsible to obtain special messages from GOD for the people that compose the flock.
Wilson's Dictionary of Bible Types
press 1957.

Angel
(ἄγγελος, used in the Sept. and New Test. for the Hebrew מִלְאָךְ, malak'), a word signifying both in Hebrew and Greek a, messenger (q.v.), and therefore used to denote whatever God employs to execute his purposes, or to manifest his presence or his power; hence often with the addition of יְהוָֹה, Jehovah, or אֵֹלהִים, Elohim. In later books the word קְדשִׁים, kedoshim', holy ones, οἱ ἄγιοι is used as an equivalent term. In some passages it occurs in the sense of an ordinary messenger (Job_1:14; 1Sa_11:3; Luk_7:4; Luk_9:52); in others it is applied to prophets (Isa_43:19; Hag_1:13; Mal_3:1-18); to priests (Ecc_5:5; Mal_2:7); to ministers of the New Testament (Revelations 1:20). It is also applied to impersonal agents; as to the pillar of cloud (Exo_14:19); to the pestilence (2Sa_24:16-17; 2Ki_19:30); to the winds (“who maketh the winds his angels,”
Psa_104:4): so likewise plagues generally are called “evil angels” (Psa_78:49), and Paul calls his thorn in the flesh an “angel of Satan” (2Co_12:7).
But this name is more eminently and distinctly applied to certain spiritual beings or heavenly intelligences, employed by God as the ministers of his will, and usually distinguished as angels of God or angels of Jehovah. In this case the name has respect to their official capacity as “messengers,” and not to their nature or condition. The term “spirit,” on the other hand (in Greek πνεῦμα, in Hebrew רוּחִ), has reference to the nature of angels, and characterizes them as incorporeal and invisible essences. When, therefore, the ancient Jews called angels spirits, they did not mean to deny that they were endued with bodies. When they affirmed that angels were incorporeal, they used the term in the sense in which it was understood by the ancients; that is, free from the impurities of gross matter. This distinction between “a natural body” and “a spiritual body” is indicated by Paul (1Co_15:44); and we may, with sufficient safety, assume that angels are spiritual bodies, rather than pure spirits in the modern acceptation of the word. (See Ode, De Angelis, Tr. ad Rh. 1739.)
It is disputed whether the term Elohim (q..v.) is ever applied to angels; but in Psa_8:5; Psa_97:7, the word is rendered by angels in the Sept. and other ancient versions; and both these texts are so cited in Heb_1:6; Heb_2:7, that they are called Sons of God. But there are many passages in which the expression, the “angel of God,” “the angel of Jehovah,” is certainly used for a manifestation of God himself. This is especially the case in the earlier books of the Old itestament, and may be seen at once by a comparison of Gen_22:11 with Gen_22:12, and of Exo_3:2 with Exo_3:6 and Exo_3:14, where He who is called the “angel of God” in one verse is called “God,” and even “Jehovah,” in those that follow, and accepts the worship due to God alone (contrast Revelations 19:10; 21:9). See also Gen_16:7; Gen_16:13; Gen_21:11; Gen_21:13; Gen_48:15-16; Num_22:22; Num_22:32; Num_22:35; and comp. Isa_63:9 with Exo_33:14, etc., etc. The same expression, it seems, is used by Paul in speaking to heathens (see Act_27:23; comp. with Act_23:11). More remarkably, the word “Elohim” is applied in Psa_82:6, to those who judge in God's name.
It is to be observed also that, side by side with these expressions, we read of God's being manifested in the form of man; e.g. to Abraham at Mamre (Gen_18:2; Gen_18:22; comp. Gen_19:1); to Jacob at Penuel (Gen_32:24; Gen_32:30); to Joshua at Gilgal (Jos_5:13; Jos_5:15), etc. It is hardly to be doubted that both sets of passages refer to the same kind of manifestation of the Divine Presence. This being the case, since we know that “no man hath seen God” (the Father) “at any time,” and that “the only-begotten Son, which is in the bosom of the Father, he hath revealed him” (Joh_1:18), the inevitable inference is that by the “Angel of the Lord” in such passages is meant He who is from the beginning, the “Word,” i.e. the Manifester or Revealer of God. These appearances are evidently “foreshadowings of the incarnation” (q.v.). By these God the Son manifested himself from time to time in that human nature which he united to the Godhead forever in the virgin's womb. SEE JEHOVAH.
This conclusion is corroborated by the fact that the phrases used as equivalent to the word “angels” in Scripture, viz., the “sons of God,” or even in poetry, the “gods” (Elohim), the “holy ones,” etc., are names which, in their full and proper sense, are applicable only to the Lord Jesus Christ. As He is “the Son of God,” so also is He the “angel” or “messenger” of the Lord. Accordingly, it is to his incarnation that all angelic ministration is distinctly referred, as to a central truth, by which alone its nature and meaning can be understood (comp. Joh_1:51, with Gen_28:11-17, especially Gen_28:13). (See an anon. work, Angels, Cherubim, and Gods, Lond. 1861.) SEE LOGOS.
I. Their Existence and Orders. — In the Scriptures we have frequent notices of spiritual intelligences existing in another state of being, and constituting a celestial family or hierarchy, over which Jehovah presides. The Bible does not, however, treat of this matter professedly and as a doctrine of religion, but merely adverts to it incidentally as a fact, without furnishing any details to gratify curiosity. The practice of the Jews of referring to the agency of angels every manifestation of the greatness and power of God has led some to contend that angels have no real existence, but are mere personifications of unknown powers of nature; and we are reminded that, in like manner, among the Gentiles, whatever was wonderful, or strange, or unaccountable, was referred by them to the agency of some one of their gods. It may be admitted that the passages in which angels are described as speaking and delivering messages might be interpreted of forcible or apparently supernatural suggestions to the mind, but they are sometimes represented as performing acts which are wholly inconsistent with this notion (Gen_16:7; Gen_16:12; Jdg_13:1-21; Mat_28:2-4); and other passages (e.g. Mat_22:30; Heb_1:4 sq.) would be without force or meaning if angels had no real existence. (See Winer's Zeitschr. 1827, 2.)
That these superior beings are very numerous is evident from the following expressions: Dan_7:10, “thousands of thousands,” and “ten thousand times ten thousand;” Mat_26:53, “more than twelve legions of angels;” Luk_2:13, “multitude of the heavenly host;” Heb_12:22-23, “myriads of angels.” It is probable, from the nature of the case, that among so great a multitude there may be different grades and classes, and even natures — ascending from man toward God, and forming a chain of being to fill up the vast space between the Creator and man, the lowest of his intellectual, creatures. Accordingly, the Scripture describes angels as existing in a society composed of members of unequal dignity, power, and excellence, and as having chiefs and rulers. It is admitted that this idea is not clearly expressed in the books composed before the Babylonish captivity; but it is developed in the books written during the exile and afterward, especially in the writings of Daniel and Zechariah. In Zec_1:11, an angel of the highest order (see Keil, Comment. ad loc.) appears in contrast with angels of an inferior class, whom he employs as his messengers and agents.(comp. 3, 4). In Dan_10:13, the appellation “one of the chief princes” (שִׂר רִאשׁוֹן), and in Dan_12:1, “the great prince” (הִשִּׂר הִגָּדוֹל), are given to Michael. The Grecian Jews rendered this appellation by the term ἀρχάγγελος, archangel (q.v.), which occurs in the New Test. (Jud_1:9; 1Th_4:16). The names of several of them even are given. SEE GABRIEL, SEE MICHAEL, etc. The opinion, therefore, that there were various orders of angels was not peculiar to the Jews, but was held by Christians in the time of the apostles, and is mentioned by the apostles themselves. The distinct divisions of the angels, according to their rank in the heavenly hierarchy, however, which we find in the writings of the later Jews, were almost or wholly unknown in the apostolical period. The appellations ἀρχαί, ἐξουσίαι, δυνάμεις, θρόνοι, κυριότητες, are, indeed, applied in Eph_1:21; Col_1:16, and elsewhere, to the angels; not, however, to them exclusively, or with the intention of denoting their particular classes; but to them in common with all beings possessed of might and power, visible as well as invisible, on earth as well as in heaven. (See Henke's Magaz. 1795, 3; 1796, 6.) SEE PRINCIPALITY.
II. Their Nature. — They are termed “spirits” (as in Heb_1:14), although this word is applied more commonly not so much to themselves as to their power dwelling in man (1Sa_18:10; Mat_8:16, etc. etc.). The word is the same as that used of the soul of man when separate from the body (Mat_14:26; Luk_24:37; Luk_24:39; 1Pe_3:19); but, since it properly expresses only that supersensuous and rational element of man's nature, which is in him the image of God (see Joh_4:24), and by which he has communion with God (Rom_8:16); and since, also, we are told that there is a “spiritual body” as well as a “natural (ψυχικόν) body” (1Co_15:44), it does not assert that the angelic nature is incorporeal. The contrary seems expressly implied by the words in which our Lord declares that, after the Resurrection, men shall be “like the angels” (ἰσάγγελοι) (Luk_20:36); because (as is elsewhere said, Php_3:21) their bodies, as well as their spirits, shall have been made entirely like His. It may also be noticed that the glorious appearance ascribed to the angels in Scripture (as in Dan_10:6) is the same as that which shone out in our Lord's Transfiguration, and in which John saw Him clothed in heaven (Revelations 1:14-16); and moreover, that whenever angels have been made manifest to man, it has always been in human form (as in Gen_18:1-33; Gen_19:1-38; Luk_24:4; Act_1:10, etc. etc.). The very fact that the titles “sons of God” (Job_1:6; Job_38:7; Dan_3:25, comp. with 28), and “gods” (Psa_8:5; Psa_97:7), applied to them, are also given to men (see Luk_3:38; Psa_82:6, and comp. our Lord's application of this last passage in Joh_10:34-37), points in the same way to a difference only of degree and an identity of kind between the human end the angelic nature. The angels are therefore revealed to us as beings; such as man might be and will be when the power of sin and death is removed, partaking in their measure of the attributes of God, Truth, Purity, and Love, because always beholding His face (Mat_18:10), and therefore being “made like Him” (1Jn_3:2). This, of course, implies finiteness, and therefore (in the strict sense) “imperfection” of nature, and constant progress, both moral and intellectual, through all eternity. Such imperfection, contrasted with the infinity of God, is expressly ascribed to them in Job_4:18; Mat_24:36; 1Pe_1:12; and it is this which emphatically points them out to us as creatures, fellow-servants of man, and therefore incapable of usurping the place of gods. This finiteness of nature implies capacity of temptation (see Butler's Anal. pt. i, c. 5), and accordingly we hear of “fallen angels.” Of the nature of their temptation and the circumstances of their fall we know absolutely nothing. All that is certain is, that they “left their first estate” (τὴν ἑαυτῶν ἀρχήν), and that they are now “angels of the devil” (Mat_25:41; Revelations 12:7, 9), partaking therefore of the falsehood, uncleanness, and hatred, which are his peculiar characteristics (Joh_8:44). All that can be conjectured must be based on the analogy of man's own temptation and fall. On the other hand, the title especially assigned to the angels of God, that of the “holy ones” (see Dan_4:13; Dan_4:23; Dan_8:13; Mat_25:31), is precisely the one which is given to those men who are renewed in Christ's image, but which belongs to them in actuality and in perfection only hereafter. (Comp. Heb_2:10; Heb_5:9; Heb_12:23.). Its use evidently implies that the angelic probation is over, and their crown of glory won.
In the Scriptures angels appear with bodies, and in the human form; and no intimation is anywhere given that these bodies are not real, or that they are only assumed for the time and then laid aside. It was manifest, indeed, to the ancients that the matter of these bodies was not like that of their own, inasmuch as angels could make themselves visible and vanish again from their sight. But this experience would suggest no doubt of the reality of their bodies; it would only intimate that they were not composed of gross matter. After his resurrection, Jesus often appeared to his disciples, and vanished again before them t yet they never doubted that they saw the same body which had been crucified, although they must have perceived that it had undergone an important change. The fact that angels always appeared in the human form does not, indeed, prove that they really have this form, but that the ancient Jews believed so. That which is not pure spirit must have some form or other; and angels may have the human form, but other forms are possible. SEE CHERUB.
The question as to the food of angels has been very much discussed. If they do eat, we can know nothing of their actual food; for the manna is manifestly called “angels' food” (Psa_78:25; Wis_16:20) merely by way of expressing its excellence. The only real question, therefore, is whether they feed at all or not. We sometimes find angels, in their terrene manifestations, eating and drinking (Gen_18:8; Gen_19:3); but in Jdg_13:15-16, the angel who appeared to Manoah declined, in a very pointed manner, to accept his hospitality. The manner in which the Jews obviated the apparent discrepancy, and the sense in which they understood such passages, appear from the apocryphal book of Tobit (12:19), where the angel is made to say, “It seems to you, indeed, as though I did eat and drink with you; but I use invisible food which no man can see.” This intimates that they were supposed to simulate when they appeared to partake of man's food, but that yet they had food of their own, proper to their natures. Milton, who was deeply read in the “angelic” literature, derides these questions (Par. Lost, 5, 433-439). But if angels do not need food; if their spiritual bodies are inherently incapable of waste or death, it seems not likely that they gratuitously perform an act designed, in all its known relations, to promote growth, to repair waste, and to sustain existence.
The passage already referred to in Mat_22:30, teaches by implication that there is no distinction of sex among the angels. The Scripture never makes mention of female angels. The Gentiles had their male and female divinities, who were the parents of other gods, and Gesenius (Thes. Heb. s.v. בֵּן, 12) insists that the “sons of God” spoken of in Gen_6:2, as the progenitors of the giants, were angels. But in the Scriptures the angels are all males; and they appear to be so represented, not to mark any distinction of sex, but because the masculine is the more honorable gender. Angels are never described with marks of age, but sometimes with those of youth (Mar_16:5). The constant absence of the features of age indicates the continual vigor and freshness of immortality. The angels never die (Luk_20:36). But no being besides God himself has essential immortality (1Ti_6:16); every other being, therefore, is mortal in itself, and can be immortal only by the will of God. Angels, consequently, are not eternal, but had a beginning. As Moses gives no account of the creation of angels in his description of the origin of the world, although the circumstance would have been too important for omission had it then taken place, there is no doubt that they were called into being before, probably very long before the acts of creation which it was the object of Moses to relate. SEE SONS OF GOD. That they are of superhuman intelligence is implied in Mar_13:32 : “But of that day and hour knoweth no man, not even the angels in heaven.” That their power is great may be gathered from such expressions as “mighty angels” (2Th_1:7); “angels, powerful in strength” (Psa_103:20); “angels who are greater [than man] in power and might.” The moral perfection of angels is shown by such phrases as “holy angels” (Luk_9:26); “the elect angels” (1Ti_5:21). Their felicity is beyond question in itself, but is evinced by the passage (Luk_20:36) in which the blessed in the future world are said to be ἰσάγγελοι, καὶ υἱοὶ τοῦ θεοῦ, “ like unto the angels, and sons of God.” (See Timpson, Angels of God, Lond. 1837.)
III. Their Functions. — Of their office in heaven we have, of course, only vague prophetic glimpses (as in 1Ki_22:19; Isa_6:1-3; Dan_7:9-10; Revelations 6:11, etc.), which show us nothing but a never-ceasing adoration, proceeding from the vision of God. Their office toward man is far more fully described to us. (See Whately, Angels, Lond. 1851, Phil. 1856.)
1. They are represented as being, in the widest sense, agents of God's providence, natural and supernatural, to the body and to the soul. Thus the operations of nature are spoken of, as under angelic guidance fulfilling the will of God. Not only is this the case in poetical passages, such as Psa_104:4 (commented upon in Heb_1:7), where the powers of air, and fire are referred to them, but in the simplest prose history, as where the pestilences which slew the firstborn (Exo_12:23; Heb_11:28), the disobedient people in the wilderness (1Co_10:10), the Israelites in the days of David (2Sa_24:16; 1Ch_21:16), and the army of Sennacherib (2Ki_19:35), as also the plague which cut off Herod (Act_12:23), are plainly spoken of as the work of the “Angel of the Lord.” Nor can the mysterious declarations of the Apocalypse, by far the most numerous of all, be resolved by honest interpretation into mere poetical imagery. (See especially Revelations 8 and 9.) It is evident that angelic agency, like that of man, does not exclude the action of secondary, or (what are called) “natural” causes, or interfere with the directness and universality of the providence of God. The personifications of poetry and legends of mythology are obscure witnesses of its truth, which, however, can rest only on the revelations of Scripture itself. 2. More particularly, however, angels are spoken of as ministers of what is commonly called the “supernatural,” or, perhaps, more correctly, the “spiritual” providence of God; as agents in the great scheme of the spiritual redemption and sanctification of man, of which the Bible is the record. The representations of them are different in different books of Scripture, in the Old Testament and in the New; but the reasons of the differences are to be found in the differences of scope attributable to the books themselves. As different parts of God's providence are brought out, so also arise different views of His angelic ministers.
(1.) In the Book of Job, which deals with “Natural Religion,” they are spoken of but vaguely, as surrounding God's throne above, and rejoicing in the completion of His creative work (Job_1:6; Job_2:1; Job_38:7). No direct and visible appearance to man is even hinted at. (See Rawson, Holy Angels, N.Y. 1858.)
(2.) In the Book of Genesis there is no notice of angelic appearances till after the call of Abraham. Then, as the book is the history of the chosen family, so the angels mingle with and watch over its family life, entertained by Abraham and by Lot (Gen_18:1-33; Gen_19:1-38), guiding Abraham's servant to Padan-Aram (Gen_24:7; Gen_24:40), seen by the fugitive Jacob at Bethel (Gen_28:12), and welcoming his return at Mahanaim (Gen_32:1). Their ministry hallows domestic life, in its trials and its blessings alike, and is closer, more familiar, and less awful than in after times. (Contrast Gen_18:1-33 with Jdg_6:21-22; Jdg_13:16; Jdg_13:22.)
(3.) In the subsequent history, that of a chosen nation, the angels are represented more as ministers of wrath and mercy, messengers of a King, than as common children of the One Father. It is, moreover, to be observed that the records of their appearance belong especially to two periods, that of the judges and that of the captivity, which were transition periods in Israelitish history, the former destitute of direct revelation or prophetic guidance, the latter one of special trial and unusual contact with heathenism. During the lives of Moses and Joshua there is no record of the appearance of created angels, and only obscure references to angels at all. In the Book of Judges angels appear to rebuke idolatry (Jdg_2:1-4), to call Gideon (Jdg_6:11, etc.), and consecrate Samson (Jdg_13:3, etc.) to the work of deliverance.
(4.) The prophetic office begins with Samuel, and immediately angelic guidance is withheld, except when needed by the prophets themselves (1Ki_19:5; 2Ki_6:17). During the prophetic and kingly period angels are spoken of only (as noticed above) as ministers of God in the operations of nature. But in the captivity, when the Jews were in the presence of foreign nations, each claiming its tutelary deity, then to the prophets Daniel and Zechariah angels are revealed in a fresh light, as watching, not only over Jerusalem, but also over, heathen kingdoms, under the providence, and to work out the designs, of the Lord. (See Zechariah passim, and Dan_4:13; Dan_4:23; Dan_10:10; Dan_10:13; Dan_10:20-21, etc.) In the whole period they, as truly as the prophets and kings, are God's ministers, watching over the national life of the subjects of the Great King. (See Heigel, De angelofoederis, Jen. 1660.)
(5.) The Incarnation marks a new epoch of angelic ministration. “The Angel of Jehovah,” the Lord of all created angels, having now descended from heaven to earth, it was natural that His servants should continue to do Him service here. Whether to predict and glorify His birth itself (Mat_1:20; Luk_1:2), to minister to Him after His temptation and agony (Mat_4:11; Luk_22:43), or to declare His resurrection and triumphant ascension (Mat_28:2; Joh_20:12; Act_1:10-11), they seem now to be indeed “ascending and descending on the Son of Man,” almost as though transferring to earth the ministrations of heaven. It is clearly seen that whatever was done by them for men in earlier days was but typical of and flowing from their service to Him. (See Psa_91:11; comp. Mat_4:6.)
(6.) The New Testament is the history of the Church of Christ, every member of which is united to Him. Accordingly, the angels are revealed now as “ministering spirits” to each individual member of Christ for his spiritual guidance and aid (Heb_1:14). The records of their visible appearance are but unfrequent (Act_5:19; Act_8:26; Act_10:3; Act_12:7; Act_27:23); yet their presence and their aid are referred to familiarly, almost as things of course, ever after the Incarnation. They are spoken of as watching over Christ's little ones (Mat_18:10), as rejoicing over a penitent sinner (Luk_15:10), as present in the worship of Christians (1Co_11:10), and (perhaps) bringing their prayers before God (Revelations 8:3, 4), and as bearing the souls of the redeemed into paradise (Luk_16:22). In one word, they are Christ's ministers of grace now, as they shall be of judgment hereafter (Mat_13:39; Mat_13:41; Mat_13:49; Mat_16:27; Mat_24:31, etc.). By what method they act we cannot know of ourselves, nor are we told, perhaps lest we should worship them instead of Him, whose servants they are (see Col_2:18; Revelations 22:9); but, of course, their agency, like that of human ministers, depends for its efficacy on the aid of the Holy Spirit.
The ministry of angels, therefore, a doctrine implied in their very name, is evident, from certain actions which are ascribed wholly to them (Mat_13:41; Mat_13:49; Mat_24:31; Luk_16:22), and from the scriptural narratives of other events, in the accomplishment of which they acted a visible part (Luk_1:11; Luk_1:26; Luk_2:9 sq.; Act_5:19-20; Act_10:3; Act_10:19; Act_12:7; Act_27:23), principally in the guidance of the destinies of man. In those cases also in which the agency is concealed from our view we may admit the probability of its existence, because we are told that God sends them forth “to minister to those who shall be heirs of salvation” (Heb_1:14; also Psa_34:8; Psa_91:1-16; Mat_18:10). But the angels, when employed for our welfare, do not act independently, but as the instruments of God, and by His command (Psa_103:20; Psa_104:4; Heb_1:13-14): not unto them, therefore, are our confidence and adoration due, but only to him (Rev_19:10; Rev_22:9) whom the angels themselves reverently worship. (See Mostyn, Ministry of Angels, Lond. 1841.)
3. Guardian Angels. — It was a favorite opinion of the Christian fathers that every individual is under the care of a particular angel, who is assigned to him as a guardian. SEE GUARDIAN ANGEL. They spoke also of two angels, the one good, the other evil, whom they conceived to be attendant on each individual: the good angel prompting to all good, and averting ill, and the evil angel prompting to all ill, and averting good (Hermas, 2, 6). SEE ABADDON. The Jews (excepting the Sadducees) entertained this belief, as do the Moslems. The heathen held it in a modified form — the Greeks having their tutelary damon (q.v.), and the Romans their genius. There is, however, nothing to support this notion in the Bible. The passages (Psa_34:7; Mat_18:10) usually referred to in support of it have assuredly no such meaning. The former, divested of its poetical shape, simply denotes that God employs the ministry of angels to deliver his people from affliction and danger; and the celebrated passage in Matthew cannot well mean any thing more than that the infant children of believers, or, if preferable, the least among the disciples of Christ, whom the ministers of the Church might be disposed to neglect from their apparent insignificance, are in such estimation elsewhere that the angels do not think it below their dignity to minister to them. SEE SATAN. IV. Literature. — For the Jewish speculations on Angelology, see Eisenmeriger, Entdecktes Judenthum, 2, 370 sq.; the Christian views on the subject may be found in Storr and Flatt's Lehrbuch der Chr. Dogmatik, §48; Scriptural views respecting them are given in the American Biblical Repository, 12, 356-368; in the Bibliotheca Sacra, 1, 766 sq.; 2, 108 sq.; on the ministry of angels, see Journal Sac. Lit. January, 1852, p. 283 sq.; on their existence and character, ib. October, 1853, p. 122 sq. Special treatises are the following, among others: Loers, De angelorunm corporib. et natura (Tuisc. 1719, F. a. Rh. 1731); Goede, Demonstrationes de existentia corporum angelicor. (Hal. 1744); Hoffmann, Num angeli boni corpora hominum interdum obsideant (Viteb. 1760); Schulthess, Engelwelt, Engelgesetz u. Engeldienst (Zur. 1833); Cotta, Doctrince de Angelis historia (Tub. 1765); Damitz, De lapsu angelorum (Viteb. 1693); Wernsdorf, De commercio angelor. c. filiabus hominum (Viteb. 1742); Schmid, Enarratio de lapsu demonum (Viteb. 1775); Maior, De natura et cultu angelor. (Jen. 1653); Merheim, Hist. angelor. spec. (Viteb. 1792); Seiler, Erroner doctrinae de angelis (Erlang. 1797); Driessen, Angelor. corpa (Gron. 1740); Beyer, De Angelis (Hal. 1698); Carhov's ed. of Abarbanel, De creatione angelorum (in Lat. Lpz. 1740); Mather, Angelography (Bost. 1696); Ambrose, Ministration of and Communion with Angels (in Works, p. 873); Camfield, Discourse of Angels (Lond. 1678); Lawrence, Communion and Warre with Angels (s. 1. 1646); Casman, Angelographia (Freft. 1597); Herrenschmidt, Theatrum angelorum (Jen. 1629); Clotz, Angelographia (Rost. 1636); Dorsche, Singularium angelicorum septenarius (Argent. 1645); Museus, Angelogia apostolica (Jen. 1664); Schmid, Senarius angelicus (Helmst. 1695); Meier, De archangelis (Hamb. 1695); Oporin, Lehre von den Engeln (ib.; 1735); Strodimann, Gute Engel (Guelph. 1744); Reuter, Reich des Teufels (Lemg. 1715); Nicolai, De gradibus nequitice diabolice (Magd. 1750); Herrera, De angelis (Salam. 1595); Grasse, Biblioth. magica (Lpz. 1843). SEE SPIRIT.
On the worship of angels, as practiced in the Roman Church, treatises exist in Latin by the following authors: AEpinus (Rost. 1757); Bechmann (Jen. 1661); Clotz (Rost. 1636); Osiander (Tubing. 1670); Pfeffinger (Argent. 1708, Helmst. 1731); Reusch (Helmnst. 1739); Schultze (Lips. 1703); Quistorp (Gryph. 1770); Thomasius, in his Dissert. p. 89-103; Wildvogel (Jen. 1692); Willisch (Lips. 1723). SEE INVOCATION.



CYCLOPEDIA OF BIBLICAL, THEOLOGICAL AND ECCLESIASTICAL
press 1895.

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