Weaving
VIEW:18 DATA:01-04-2020
WEAVING.See Spinning and Weaving.
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible
Edited by James Hastings, D.D. Published in 1909
(See LINEN.) The "fine linen" of Joseph (Gen_41:42) accords with existing specimens of Egyptian weaving equal to the finest cambric. The Israelites learned from the Egyptians the art, and so could weave the tabernacle curtains (Exo_35:35). In Isa_19:9 Gesenius translated choral (from chur, "white") "they that weave white cloth," for "networks" (Est_1:6; Est_8:15). The Tyrians got from Egypt their "fine linen with embroidered work" for sails (Eze_27:7). Men wove anciently (1Ch_4:21); latterly females (1Sa_2:19; Pro_31:13; Pro_31:19; Pro_31:24). The Egyptian loom was upright, and the weaver stood. Jesus' seamless coat was woven "from the top" (Joh_19:23). In Lev_13:48 the "warp" and "woof" are not parts of woven cloth, but yarn prepared for warp and yarn prepared for woof.
The speed of the shuttle, the decisive cutting of the web from the thrum when the web is complete, symbolize the rapid passing away of life and its being cut off at a stroke (Job_7:6; Isa_38:12); each day, like the weaver's shuttle, leaves a thread behind. Textures with gold thread interwoven (Psa_45:13) were most valuable. The Babylonians wove men and animals on robes; Achan appropriated such a "goodly Babylonish garment" (Jos_7:21). Sacerdotal garments were woven without seam (Josephus, Ant. 3:7, section 4); so Jesus' "coat without seam" (Joh_19:23) was appropriately sacerdotal, as He was at once the Priest and the sacrifice.
Fausset's Bible Dictionary
By Andrew Robert Fausset, co-Author of Jamieson, Fausset and Brown's 1888.
Weaving. The art of weaving appears to be coeval with the first dawning of civilization. We find it practiced with great skill by the Egyptians at a very early period; The vestures of fine linen" such as Joseph wore, Gen_41:42, were the product of Egyptian looms. The Israelites were probably acquainted with the process before their sojourn in Egypt; but it was undoubtedly there, that they attained the proficiency which enabled them to execute the hangings of the Tabernacle, Exo_35:35; 1Ch_4:21, and other artistic textures.
The Egyptian loom was usually upright, and the weaver stood at his work. The cloth was fixed sometimes at the top, sometimes at the bottom. The modern Arabs use a procumbent loom, raised above the ground by short legs. The textures produced by the Jewish weavers were very various. The coarser kinds, such tent-cloth, sack-cloth and the "hairy garments" of the poor, were made goat's or camel's hair. Exo_26:7; Mat_3:4.
Wool was extensively used for ordinary clothing, Lev_13:47; Pro_27:26; Pro_31:13; Eze_27:18, while for finer work, flax was used, varying in quality, and producing the different textures described in the Bible as "linen" and "fine linen." The mixture of wool and flax in cloth intended for a garment was interdicted. Lev_19:19; Lev_22:11.
Smith's Bible Dictionary
By Dr. William Smith.Published in 1863
The combined arts of spinning and weaving are among the first essentials of civilized society, and we find both to be of very ancient origin. The fabulous story of Penelope's web, and, still more, the frequent allusions to this art in the sacred writings, tend to show that the fabrication of cloth from threads, hair, &c, is a very ancient invention. It has, however, like other useful arts, undergone a vast succession of improvements, both as to the preparation of the materials of which cloth is made, and the apparatus necessary in its construction, as well as in the particular modes of operation by the artist. Weaving, when reduced to its original principle, is nothing more than the interlacing of the weft or cross threads into the parallel threads of the warp, so as to tie them together, and form a web or piece of cloth. This art is doubtless more ancient than that of spinning; and the first cloth was what we now call matting, that is, made by weaving together the shreds of the bark, or fibrous parts of plants, or the stalks, such as rushes and straws. This is still the substitute for cloth among most rude and savage nations. When they have advanced a step farther in civilization than the state of hunters, the skins of animals become scarce, and they require some more artificial substance for clothing, and which they can procure in greater quantities. When it was discovered that the delicate and short fibres which animals and vegetables afford could be so firmly united together by twisting, as to form threads of any required length and strength, the weaving art was placed on a very permanent foundation. By the process of spinning, which was very simple in the origin, the weaver is furnished with threads far superior to any natural vegetable fibres in lightness, strength, and flexibility; and he has only to combine them together in the most advantageous manner. In the beautiful description which is given, in the last chapter of Solomon's Proverbs, of the domestic economy of the virtuous woman, it is said, She seeketh wool and flax, and worketh willingly with her hands: she layeth her hands to the spindle, and her hands hold the distaff. She maketh herself coverings of tapestry, &c. Such is the occupation of females in the east in the present day. Not only do they employ themselves in working rich embroideries, but in making carpets filled with flowers and other pleasing figures. Dr. Shaw gives us an account of the last: Carpets, which are much courser than those from Turkey, are made here in great numbers, and of all sizes. But the chief branch of their manufactories is the making of hykes, or blankets, as we should call them. The women alone are employed in this work, (as Andromache and Penelope were of old,) who do not use the shuttle, but conduct every thread of the woof with their fingers. Hezekiah says, I have cut off like a weaver my life, Isa_38:12. Mr. Harmer suggests whether the simile here used may not refer to the weaving of a carpet filled with flowers and other ingenious devices; and that the meaning may be, that, just as a weaver, after having wrought many decorations into a piece of carpeting, suddenly cuts it off, while the figures were rising into view fresh and beautiful, and the spectator expecting he would proceed in his work; so, after a variety of pleasing transactions in the course of life, it suddenly and unexpectedly comes to its end.
Biblical and Theological Dictionary by Richard Watson
PRINTER 1849.
we?ving: Although weaving was one of the most important and best developed of the crafts of Bible times, yet we have but few Biblical references to enlighten us as to the processes used in those early days. A knowledge of the technique of weaving is necessary, however, if we are to understand some of the Biblical incidents. The principle of weaving in all ages is illustrated by the process of darning. The hole to be darned is laid over with parallel threads which correspond to the ?warp? (שׁתי, shethı̄) of a woven fabric. Then, by means of a darning needle which takes the place of the shuttle in the loom, other threads are interlaced back and forth at right angles to the first set of strands. This second set corresponds to the woof (ערב, ‛ērebh) or weft of woven cloth. The result is a web of threads across the hole. If the warp threads, instead of being attached to the edges of a fabric, are fastened to two beams which can be stretched either on a frame or on the ground, and the woof is interlaced exactly as in darning, the result will be a web of cloth. The process is then called weaving (ארג, 'āragh), and the apparatus a loom. The most up-to-date loom of our modern mills differs from the above only in the devices for accelerating the process. The first of these improvements dates back some 5,000 years to the early Egyptians, who discovered what is technically known as shedding, i.e. dividing the warp into two sets of threads, every other thread being lifted so that the woof can run between, as is shown in the diagram of the Arabic loom.
The looms are still commonly used among the Bedouins. Supppose only eight threads are used for an illustration. In reality the eight strands are made by passing one continuous thread back and forth between the two poles which are held apart by stakes driven into the ground. The even strands run through loops of string attached to a rod, and from there under a beam to the pole. By placing the ends upon stones, or by suspending it on loops, the even threads are raised above the odd threads, thus forming a shed through which the weft can be passed. The separating of odds and evens is assisted by a flat board of wedge-shaped cross-section, which is turned at right angles to the odd threads. After the shuttle has been passed across, this same stick is used to beat up the weft.
The threads are removed from the stones or loops, and allowed to lie loosely on the warp; it is pulled forward toward the weaver and raised on the stones in the position previously occupied by it. The flat spreader is passed through the new shed in which the odd threads are now above and the even threads below. The weft is run through and is beaten into place with the thin edge of it. The shuttle commonly used is a straight tree branch on which the thread is loosely wound ?kite-string? fashion.
The loom used by Delilah was no doubt like the one described above (Jdg_16:13, Jdg_16:14). It would have been an easy matter for her to run in Samson's locks as strands of the weft while he lay sleeping on the ground near the loom adjacent to rod under the beam. The passage might be transposed thus: ?And he said unto her, If thou weavest the seven locks of my head into the web. And she passed in his locks and beat them up with the batten (יתד, yāthēdh), and said unto him, The Philistines are upon thee, Samson. And he awakened out of his sleep and as he jumped up he pulled away the pins of the loom.?
The counterpart of the Bedouin loom is shown on the ancient tombs at Beni Ḥasan (see EB, 5279, or Wilkinson, I, 317). As Dr. Kennedy points out, the artist of that ancient picture has unwittingly reversed the order of the beams. The shedding beam, of the two, should be nearer the weaver. At what period the crude shedding device described above was replaced by a double set of loops worked by pedals is unknown. Some writers believe that the Jews were acquainted with it. The ?flying shuttle? of the modern loom is probably a comparatively recent invention.
The products of the Bedouin looms are coarse in texture. Such passages as Exo_35:35; Isa_19:9, and examples of ancient weaving, lead us to believe that in Bible times contemporaneous with the primitive loom were more highly developed machines, just as in the cities of Egypt and Palestine today, alongside of the crude Bedouin loom, are found the more intricate hand looms on which are produced the most delicate fabrics possible to the weaver's article. Examples of cloth comparing favorably with our best grades of muslin have been found among the Egyptian mummy wrappings.
Two other forms of looms have been used for weaving, in both of which the warp is upright. In one type the strands of the warp, singly or in bundles, are suspended from a beam and held taut by numerous small weights made of stones or pottery. Dr. Bliss found at Tel el-Ḥesy collections of weights, sometimes 60 or more together, individual examples of which showed marks where cords had been attached to them. These he assumed were weavers' weights (see A Mound of Many Cities). In this form the weaving was necessarily from top to bottom.
The second type of upright loom is still used in some parts of Syria, especially for weaving coarse goat's hair cloth. In this form the warp is attached to the lower beam and passes vertically upward over another beam and thence to a wall where it is gathered in a rope and tied to a peg, or it is held taut by heavy stone weights. The manipulation is much the same as in the primitive loom, except that the weft is beaten up with an iron comb. The web is wound up on the lower beam as it is woven (compare Isa_38:12).
Patterns are woven into the web (1) by making the warp threads of different colors, (2) by alternating colors in the weft, (3) by a combination of (1) and (2); this produces checked work (שׁבּץ, shibbēc, Exo_28:39 the Revised Version (British and American)); (4) by running special weft threads through only a portion of the warp. This requires much skill and is probably the kind of weaving referred to in Exo_26:1 ff; Eze_16:13; Eze_27:16; (5) when metals are to be woven, they are rolled thin, cut into narrow strips, wound in spirals about threads of cotton or linen (compare Exo_28:5 ff; Exo_39:3 ff). In all these kinds of weaving the Syrian weavers of today are very skillful. If a cylindrical web is referred to in Joh_19:23, then Jesus' tunic must have been woven with two sets of warp threads on an upright loom so arranged that the weft could be passed first through one shed and then around to the other side and back through the shed of the second set.
Goliath's spear was compared in thickness to that of the weaver's beam, i.e. 2 inches to 2 1/2 inches in diameter (1Sa_17:7; 2Sa_21:19; 1Ch_11:23; 1Ch_20:5).
In Job_7:6, if ?shuttle? is the right rendering for ארג, 'eregh, the reference is to the rapidity with which the thread of the shuttle is used up, as the second part of the verse indicates.
For a very full discussion of the terms employed see A. R. S. Kennedy in EB, IV, 5276-90.
International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
PRINTER 1915.
Weaving is too necessary an art not to have existed in the early periods of the world. It appears, indeed, to have in all nations come into existence with the first dawning of civilization. The Egyptians had, as might be expected, already made considerable progress therein when the Israelites tarried among them; and in this as well as in many other of the arts of life, they became the instructors of that people. Textures of cotton and of flax were woven by them; whence we read of the 'vestures of fine linen' with which Pharaoh arrayed Joseph (Gen_41:42); terms which show that the art of fabricating cloth had been successfully cultivated. Indeed Egypt was celebrated among the Hebrews for its manufacturing skill. Thus Isaiah (Isa_19:9) speaks of 'them that work in fine flax, and them that weave networks.' That these fabrics displayed taste as well as skill may be inferred from Eze_27:7, 'Fine linen with broidered work from Egypt.' So in Pro_7:16, 'I have decked my couch with coverings of tapestry, with fine linen of Egypt.' If, however, the Hebrews learned the art of weaving in Egypt, they appear to have made progress therein from their own resources, even before they entered Palestine; for having before them the prospect of a national establishment in that land, they would naturally turn their attention to the arts of life, and had leisure as well as occasion, during their sojourn of forty years in the wilderness, for practicing those arts; and certainly we cannot but understand the words of Moses to imply that the skill spoken of in Exo_35:30, sq., came from a Hebrew and not a foreign impulse. Among the Israelites weaving, together with spinning, was for the most part in the hands of females (Pro_31:13; Pro_31:19); nor did persons of rank and distinction consider the occupation mean (Exo_35:25; 2Ki_23:7). But as in Egypt males exclusively, so in Palestine men conjointly with women, wove (Exo_35:35). From 1Ch_4:21 it may be inferred that there were in Israel a class of master-manufacturers. The loom, as was generally the case in the ancient world, was high, requiring the weaver to stand at his employment.
Connected with the loom are,
the shuttle (Job_7:6);
the weaver's beam (1Sa_17:7; 2Sa_21:19);
a weaver's pin (Jdg_16:14).
The degree of skill to which the Hebrews attained it is difficult to measure. The stuffs which they wove were of linen, flax, and wool. Among the latter must be reckoned those of camels' and goats' hair, which were used by the poor for clothing and for mourning (Exo_26:7; Exo_35:6; Mat_3:4). Garments woven in one piece throughout, so as to need no making, were held in high repute; whence the Jews have a tradition that no needle was employed on the clothing of the high priest, each piece of which was of one continued texture. This notion throws light on the language used by Joh_19:23?'the coat was without seam'?words that are explained by those which follow, and which Wetstein regards as a gloss?'woven from the top throughout.' This seamless coat, which has lately given occasion to the great religious reformatory movement begun by the priest Ronge, would seem to indicate that our Lord, knowing that His time was now come, had arrayed Himself in vestments suitable to the dignity of His Messianic office.
The Popular Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature
by John Kitto.
(אָרִג, arag) is an art which appears to be coeval with the, first dawning of civilization. In what country or by whom it was invented, we know not; but we find it practiced with great skill by the Egyptians at a very early period, and hence the invention was not unnaturally attributed to them (Pliny, 7:57). The vestures of fine linen such as Joseph wore (Gen_41:42) were the product of Egyptian looms, and their quality, as attested by existing specimens, is pronounced to be not inferior to the finest cambric of modern times (Wilkinson, 2, 75). The Israelites were probably acquainted with the process before their sojourn in Egypt; but it was undoubtedly there that they attained the proficiency which enabled them to execute the hangings of the Tabernacle (Exo_35:35; 1Ch_4:21) and other artistic textures. At a later period the Egyptians were still famed for their manufactures of fine (hackled) flax and of chorn, חֹרַר, rendered in the A.V. networks, but more probably a white material either of linen or cotton (Isa_19:9; comp. Pro_7:16). From them the Tyrians procured the fine linen with broidered work for the sails of their vessels (Eze_27:7), the handsome character of which may be inferred from the representations of similar sails in the Egyptian paintings (Wilkinson, 2, 131, 167). Weaving was carried on in Egypt generally, but not universally, by men (Herod. 2, 35; comp. Wilkinson, 2, 84). his was the case also among the Jews about the time of the Exode (1Ch_4:21): but in later times it usually fell to the lot of the females to supply the household with clothing (1Sa_2:19; 2Ki_23:7), and an industrious housewife would produce a surplus, for sale to others (Pro_31:13; Pro_31:19; Pro_31:24).
The character of the loom and the process of weaving can only be inferred from incidental notices. The Egyptian loom was usually upright, and: the weaver stood at his work. The cloth was fixed sometimes at the top, sometimes' at the bottom, so that the remark of Herodottus (2, 85) that the Egyptians, contrary to the usual practice, pressed the woof downwards must be received with reservation (Wilkinson, 2, 85). That a similar variety of usage prevailed among the Jews may be inferred from the remark of John (Joh_19:23) that the seamless coat was woven from the top (ἐκ τῶν ἄνωθεν). Tunics of this kind were designated by the Romans rectae, implying that they were made at an upright loom at Which the weaver stood to his work, thrusting the woof upwards (Pliny, 8:74). The modern Arabs use a procumbent loom, raised above the ground by short legs (Burckhardt, Notes, 1, 67). The Bible does not notice the loom itself, but speaks of the beam ( מָנוֹרso called from its resemblance to a ploughman's yoke) to which the warp was attached (1Sa_17:7; 2Sa_21:19); and of the pin (מִסֶּכֶת, a term otherwise understood of the warp, as in the Sept. and the Vulg. [Gesenius, Thesaur. p. 890]) to which the cloth was fixed, and on which it was rolled (Jdg_16:14). We have also notice of the shuttle ( אֶרֶגdenoting both the web and the shuttle), which is described by a term significant of the act of weaving (Job_7:6); the thrum (דִּלָּה) or threads which attached the web to the beam (Isa_38:12, marg.); and the web itself (Jdg_16:14; A. V. beam). Whether the two terms in Lev_13:48, rendered warp (שְׁתַי) and woof (עֵרֶב), really mean these admits of doubt, inasmuch as it is not easy to see how the one could be affected with leprosy without the other: perhaps the terms refer to certain kinds of texture (Knobel, ad loc.). The shuttle is occasionally dispensed with, the woof being passed through with the hand (Robinson, Bibl. Res. 1, 169). The speed with which the weaver used his shuttle, and the decisive manner in which he separated the web from the thrum. when his work was done, supplied vivid images the former of the rapid passage of life (Job_7:6), the latter of sudden death (Isa_38:12).
The textures produced by the Jewish weavers were very various. The coarser kinds, such as tent-cloth, sackcloth, and the hairy garments of the poor, were made of goat's or camel's hair (Exo_26:7; Mat_3:4). Wool was extensively used for ordinary clothing (Lev_13:47 Pro_27:26; Pro_31:13; Eze_27:18); while for finer work flax was used, varying in quality, and producing the different textures described in the Bible as linen and fine linen. The mixture of wool and flax in cloth intended for a garment was interdicted (Lev_19:19; Deu_32:11). With regard to the ornamental kinds of work, the needlework and the work of the cunning workman have already been discussed under the head of NEEDLEWORK to the effect that both kinds were produced in the loom, and that the distinction between them lay in the addition of a device or pattern in the latter, the rikmah consisting simply of a variegated stuff without a pattern. We may further notice the terms
(1) shabats (שָׁבִוֹ) and tashbets ( תִּשְׁבֵּוֹ), applied to the robes of the priest (Exo_28:4; Exo_28:39), and signifying tesselated (A. V. broidered), i.e. with depressions probably of a square shape worked in it, similar to the texture described by the Romans under the term scutulautus (Pliny, 8:73; Juvenal, 2, 97); this was produced in the loom, as it is expressly said to be the work of the weaver (Exo_39:27);
(2) moshar (מָשְׁזָר) (A. V. twined), applied to the fine linen out of which the curtains of the tabernacle and the sacerdotal vestments were made (Exo_26:1; Exo_28:6, etc.); in this texture each thread consisted of several finer threads twisted together, as is described to have been the case with the famed corselet of Amasis (Herod. 3, 47);
(3) mishbetsdth zahab ( מַשְׁבְּצוֹת זָהָב) (A. V. of wrought gold), textures in which gold-thread was interwoven (Psa_45:13). The Babylonians were particularly skilful in this branch of weaving, and embroidered groups of men or animals on the robes (Pliny, 8:74; Layard, Nineveh, 2, 413). The goodly Babylonish garment secreted by Achan was probably of this character (Jos_7:21). The sacerdotal vestments arc said to have been woven in one piece without the intervention of any needlework to join the seams (Josephus, Ant. 3, 7, 4). The coat without seam χιτών ἄῤῥαφος), worn by Jesus at the time of his crucifixion (Joh_19:23), was probably of a sacerdotal character in this respect, but made of a less costly material (Carpzov, Appar. p. 72). SEE WEB.
CYCLOPEDIA OF BIBLICAL, THEOLOGICAL AND ECCLESIASTICAL
press 1895.
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible
Edited by James Hastings, D.D. Published in 1909
(See LINEN.) The "fine linen" of Joseph (Gen_41:42) accords with existing specimens of Egyptian weaving equal to the finest cambric. The Israelites learned from the Egyptians the art, and so could weave the tabernacle curtains (Exo_35:35). In Isa_19:9 Gesenius translated choral (from chur, "white") "they that weave white cloth," for "networks" (Est_1:6; Est_8:15). The Tyrians got from Egypt their "fine linen with embroidered work" for sails (Eze_27:7). Men wove anciently (1Ch_4:21); latterly females (1Sa_2:19; Pro_31:13; Pro_31:19; Pro_31:24). The Egyptian loom was upright, and the weaver stood. Jesus' seamless coat was woven "from the top" (Joh_19:23). In Lev_13:48 the "warp" and "woof" are not parts of woven cloth, but yarn prepared for warp and yarn prepared for woof.
The speed of the shuttle, the decisive cutting of the web from the thrum when the web is complete, symbolize the rapid passing away of life and its being cut off at a stroke (Job_7:6; Isa_38:12); each day, like the weaver's shuttle, leaves a thread behind. Textures with gold thread interwoven (Psa_45:13) were most valuable. The Babylonians wove men and animals on robes; Achan appropriated such a "goodly Babylonish garment" (Jos_7:21). Sacerdotal garments were woven without seam (Josephus, Ant. 3:7, section 4); so Jesus' "coat without seam" (Joh_19:23) was appropriately sacerdotal, as He was at once the Priest and the sacrifice.
Fausset's Bible Dictionary
By Andrew Robert Fausset, co-Author of Jamieson, Fausset and Brown's 1888.
Weaving. The art of weaving appears to be coeval with the first dawning of civilization. We find it practiced with great skill by the Egyptians at a very early period; The vestures of fine linen" such as Joseph wore, Gen_41:42, were the product of Egyptian looms. The Israelites were probably acquainted with the process before their sojourn in Egypt; but it was undoubtedly there, that they attained the proficiency which enabled them to execute the hangings of the Tabernacle, Exo_35:35; 1Ch_4:21, and other artistic textures.
The Egyptian loom was usually upright, and the weaver stood at his work. The cloth was fixed sometimes at the top, sometimes at the bottom. The modern Arabs use a procumbent loom, raised above the ground by short legs. The textures produced by the Jewish weavers were very various. The coarser kinds, such tent-cloth, sack-cloth and the "hairy garments" of the poor, were made goat's or camel's hair. Exo_26:7; Mat_3:4.
Wool was extensively used for ordinary clothing, Lev_13:47; Pro_27:26; Pro_31:13; Eze_27:18, while for finer work, flax was used, varying in quality, and producing the different textures described in the Bible as "linen" and "fine linen." The mixture of wool and flax in cloth intended for a garment was interdicted. Lev_19:19; Lev_22:11.
Smith's Bible Dictionary
By Dr. William Smith.Published in 1863
The combined arts of spinning and weaving are among the first essentials of civilized society, and we find both to be of very ancient origin. The fabulous story of Penelope's web, and, still more, the frequent allusions to this art in the sacred writings, tend to show that the fabrication of cloth from threads, hair, &c, is a very ancient invention. It has, however, like other useful arts, undergone a vast succession of improvements, both as to the preparation of the materials of which cloth is made, and the apparatus necessary in its construction, as well as in the particular modes of operation by the artist. Weaving, when reduced to its original principle, is nothing more than the interlacing of the weft or cross threads into the parallel threads of the warp, so as to tie them together, and form a web or piece of cloth. This art is doubtless more ancient than that of spinning; and the first cloth was what we now call matting, that is, made by weaving together the shreds of the bark, or fibrous parts of plants, or the stalks, such as rushes and straws. This is still the substitute for cloth among most rude and savage nations. When they have advanced a step farther in civilization than the state of hunters, the skins of animals become scarce, and they require some more artificial substance for clothing, and which they can procure in greater quantities. When it was discovered that the delicate and short fibres which animals and vegetables afford could be so firmly united together by twisting, as to form threads of any required length and strength, the weaving art was placed on a very permanent foundation. By the process of spinning, which was very simple in the origin, the weaver is furnished with threads far superior to any natural vegetable fibres in lightness, strength, and flexibility; and he has only to combine them together in the most advantageous manner. In the beautiful description which is given, in the last chapter of Solomon's Proverbs, of the domestic economy of the virtuous woman, it is said, She seeketh wool and flax, and worketh willingly with her hands: she layeth her hands to the spindle, and her hands hold the distaff. She maketh herself coverings of tapestry, &c. Such is the occupation of females in the east in the present day. Not only do they employ themselves in working rich embroideries, but in making carpets filled with flowers and other pleasing figures. Dr. Shaw gives us an account of the last: Carpets, which are much courser than those from Turkey, are made here in great numbers, and of all sizes. But the chief branch of their manufactories is the making of hykes, or blankets, as we should call them. The women alone are employed in this work, (as Andromache and Penelope were of old,) who do not use the shuttle, but conduct every thread of the woof with their fingers. Hezekiah says, I have cut off like a weaver my life, Isa_38:12. Mr. Harmer suggests whether the simile here used may not refer to the weaving of a carpet filled with flowers and other ingenious devices; and that the meaning may be, that, just as a weaver, after having wrought many decorations into a piece of carpeting, suddenly cuts it off, while the figures were rising into view fresh and beautiful, and the spectator expecting he would proceed in his work; so, after a variety of pleasing transactions in the course of life, it suddenly and unexpectedly comes to its end.
Biblical and Theological Dictionary by Richard Watson
PRINTER 1849.
we?ving: Although weaving was one of the most important and best developed of the crafts of Bible times, yet we have but few Biblical references to enlighten us as to the processes used in those early days. A knowledge of the technique of weaving is necessary, however, if we are to understand some of the Biblical incidents. The principle of weaving in all ages is illustrated by the process of darning. The hole to be darned is laid over with parallel threads which correspond to the ?warp? (שׁתי, shethı̄) of a woven fabric. Then, by means of a darning needle which takes the place of the shuttle in the loom, other threads are interlaced back and forth at right angles to the first set of strands. This second set corresponds to the woof (ערב, ‛ērebh) or weft of woven cloth. The result is a web of threads across the hole. If the warp threads, instead of being attached to the edges of a fabric, are fastened to two beams which can be stretched either on a frame or on the ground, and the woof is interlaced exactly as in darning, the result will be a web of cloth. The process is then called weaving (ארג, 'āragh), and the apparatus a loom. The most up-to-date loom of our modern mills differs from the above only in the devices for accelerating the process. The first of these improvements dates back some 5,000 years to the early Egyptians, who discovered what is technically known as shedding, i.e. dividing the warp into two sets of threads, every other thread being lifted so that the woof can run between, as is shown in the diagram of the Arabic loom.
The looms are still commonly used among the Bedouins. Supppose only eight threads are used for an illustration. In reality the eight strands are made by passing one continuous thread back and forth between the two poles which are held apart by stakes driven into the ground. The even strands run through loops of string attached to a rod, and from there under a beam to the pole. By placing the ends upon stones, or by suspending it on loops, the even threads are raised above the odd threads, thus forming a shed through which the weft can be passed. The separating of odds and evens is assisted by a flat board of wedge-shaped cross-section, which is turned at right angles to the odd threads. After the shuttle has been passed across, this same stick is used to beat up the weft.
The threads are removed from the stones or loops, and allowed to lie loosely on the warp; it is pulled forward toward the weaver and raised on the stones in the position previously occupied by it. The flat spreader is passed through the new shed in which the odd threads are now above and the even threads below. The weft is run through and is beaten into place with the thin edge of it. The shuttle commonly used is a straight tree branch on which the thread is loosely wound ?kite-string? fashion.
The loom used by Delilah was no doubt like the one described above (Jdg_16:13, Jdg_16:14). It would have been an easy matter for her to run in Samson's locks as strands of the weft while he lay sleeping on the ground near the loom adjacent to rod under the beam. The passage might be transposed thus: ?And he said unto her, If thou weavest the seven locks of my head into the web. And she passed in his locks and beat them up with the batten (יתד, yāthēdh), and said unto him, The Philistines are upon thee, Samson. And he awakened out of his sleep and as he jumped up he pulled away the pins of the loom.?
The counterpart of the Bedouin loom is shown on the ancient tombs at Beni Ḥasan (see EB, 5279, or Wilkinson, I, 317). As Dr. Kennedy points out, the artist of that ancient picture has unwittingly reversed the order of the beams. The shedding beam, of the two, should be nearer the weaver. At what period the crude shedding device described above was replaced by a double set of loops worked by pedals is unknown. Some writers believe that the Jews were acquainted with it. The ?flying shuttle? of the modern loom is probably a comparatively recent invention.
The products of the Bedouin looms are coarse in texture. Such passages as Exo_35:35; Isa_19:9, and examples of ancient weaving, lead us to believe that in Bible times contemporaneous with the primitive loom were more highly developed machines, just as in the cities of Egypt and Palestine today, alongside of the crude Bedouin loom, are found the more intricate hand looms on which are produced the most delicate fabrics possible to the weaver's article. Examples of cloth comparing favorably with our best grades of muslin have been found among the Egyptian mummy wrappings.
Two other forms of looms have been used for weaving, in both of which the warp is upright. In one type the strands of the warp, singly or in bundles, are suspended from a beam and held taut by numerous small weights made of stones or pottery. Dr. Bliss found at Tel el-Ḥesy collections of weights, sometimes 60 or more together, individual examples of which showed marks where cords had been attached to them. These he assumed were weavers' weights (see A Mound of Many Cities). In this form the weaving was necessarily from top to bottom.
The second type of upright loom is still used in some parts of Syria, especially for weaving coarse goat's hair cloth. In this form the warp is attached to the lower beam and passes vertically upward over another beam and thence to a wall where it is gathered in a rope and tied to a peg, or it is held taut by heavy stone weights. The manipulation is much the same as in the primitive loom, except that the weft is beaten up with an iron comb. The web is wound up on the lower beam as it is woven (compare Isa_38:12).
Patterns are woven into the web (1) by making the warp threads of different colors, (2) by alternating colors in the weft, (3) by a combination of (1) and (2); this produces checked work (שׁבּץ, shibbēc, Exo_28:39 the Revised Version (British and American)); (4) by running special weft threads through only a portion of the warp. This requires much skill and is probably the kind of weaving referred to in Exo_26:1 ff; Eze_16:13; Eze_27:16; (5) when metals are to be woven, they are rolled thin, cut into narrow strips, wound in spirals about threads of cotton or linen (compare Exo_28:5 ff; Exo_39:3 ff). In all these kinds of weaving the Syrian weavers of today are very skillful. If a cylindrical web is referred to in Joh_19:23, then Jesus' tunic must have been woven with two sets of warp threads on an upright loom so arranged that the weft could be passed first through one shed and then around to the other side and back through the shed of the second set.
Goliath's spear was compared in thickness to that of the weaver's beam, i.e. 2 inches to 2 1/2 inches in diameter (1Sa_17:7; 2Sa_21:19; 1Ch_11:23; 1Ch_20:5).
In Job_7:6, if ?shuttle? is the right rendering for ארג, 'eregh, the reference is to the rapidity with which the thread of the shuttle is used up, as the second part of the verse indicates.
For a very full discussion of the terms employed see A. R. S. Kennedy in EB, IV, 5276-90.
International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
PRINTER 1915.
Weaving is too necessary an art not to have existed in the early periods of the world. It appears, indeed, to have in all nations come into existence with the first dawning of civilization. The Egyptians had, as might be expected, already made considerable progress therein when the Israelites tarried among them; and in this as well as in many other of the arts of life, they became the instructors of that people. Textures of cotton and of flax were woven by them; whence we read of the 'vestures of fine linen' with which Pharaoh arrayed Joseph (Gen_41:42); terms which show that the art of fabricating cloth had been successfully cultivated. Indeed Egypt was celebrated among the Hebrews for its manufacturing skill. Thus Isaiah (Isa_19:9) speaks of 'them that work in fine flax, and them that weave networks.' That these fabrics displayed taste as well as skill may be inferred from Eze_27:7, 'Fine linen with broidered work from Egypt.' So in Pro_7:16, 'I have decked my couch with coverings of tapestry, with fine linen of Egypt.' If, however, the Hebrews learned the art of weaving in Egypt, they appear to have made progress therein from their own resources, even before they entered Palestine; for having before them the prospect of a national establishment in that land, they would naturally turn their attention to the arts of life, and had leisure as well as occasion, during their sojourn of forty years in the wilderness, for practicing those arts; and certainly we cannot but understand the words of Moses to imply that the skill spoken of in Exo_35:30, sq., came from a Hebrew and not a foreign impulse. Among the Israelites weaving, together with spinning, was for the most part in the hands of females (Pro_31:13; Pro_31:19); nor did persons of rank and distinction consider the occupation mean (Exo_35:25; 2Ki_23:7). But as in Egypt males exclusively, so in Palestine men conjointly with women, wove (Exo_35:35). From 1Ch_4:21 it may be inferred that there were in Israel a class of master-manufacturers. The loom, as was generally the case in the ancient world, was high, requiring the weaver to stand at his employment.
Connected with the loom are,
the shuttle (Job_7:6);
the weaver's beam (1Sa_17:7; 2Sa_21:19);
a weaver's pin (Jdg_16:14).
The degree of skill to which the Hebrews attained it is difficult to measure. The stuffs which they wove were of linen, flax, and wool. Among the latter must be reckoned those of camels' and goats' hair, which were used by the poor for clothing and for mourning (Exo_26:7; Exo_35:6; Mat_3:4). Garments woven in one piece throughout, so as to need no making, were held in high repute; whence the Jews have a tradition that no needle was employed on the clothing of the high priest, each piece of which was of one continued texture. This notion throws light on the language used by Joh_19:23?'the coat was without seam'?words that are explained by those which follow, and which Wetstein regards as a gloss?'woven from the top throughout.' This seamless coat, which has lately given occasion to the great religious reformatory movement begun by the priest Ronge, would seem to indicate that our Lord, knowing that His time was now come, had arrayed Himself in vestments suitable to the dignity of His Messianic office.
The Popular Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature
by John Kitto.
(אָרִג, arag) is an art which appears to be coeval with the, first dawning of civilization. In what country or by whom it was invented, we know not; but we find it practiced with great skill by the Egyptians at a very early period, and hence the invention was not unnaturally attributed to them (Pliny, 7:57). The vestures of fine linen such as Joseph wore (Gen_41:42) were the product of Egyptian looms, and their quality, as attested by existing specimens, is pronounced to be not inferior to the finest cambric of modern times (Wilkinson, 2, 75). The Israelites were probably acquainted with the process before their sojourn in Egypt; but it was undoubtedly there that they attained the proficiency which enabled them to execute the hangings of the Tabernacle (Exo_35:35; 1Ch_4:21) and other artistic textures. At a later period the Egyptians were still famed for their manufactures of fine (hackled) flax and of chorn, חֹרַר, rendered in the A.V. networks, but more probably a white material either of linen or cotton (Isa_19:9; comp. Pro_7:16). From them the Tyrians procured the fine linen with broidered work for the sails of their vessels (Eze_27:7), the handsome character of which may be inferred from the representations of similar sails in the Egyptian paintings (Wilkinson, 2, 131, 167). Weaving was carried on in Egypt generally, but not universally, by men (Herod. 2, 35; comp. Wilkinson, 2, 84). his was the case also among the Jews about the time of the Exode (1Ch_4:21): but in later times it usually fell to the lot of the females to supply the household with clothing (1Sa_2:19; 2Ki_23:7), and an industrious housewife would produce a surplus, for sale to others (Pro_31:13; Pro_31:19; Pro_31:24).
The character of the loom and the process of weaving can only be inferred from incidental notices. The Egyptian loom was usually upright, and: the weaver stood at his work. The cloth was fixed sometimes at the top, sometimes' at the bottom, so that the remark of Herodottus (2, 85) that the Egyptians, contrary to the usual practice, pressed the woof downwards must be received with reservation (Wilkinson, 2, 85). That a similar variety of usage prevailed among the Jews may be inferred from the remark of John (Joh_19:23) that the seamless coat was woven from the top (ἐκ τῶν ἄνωθεν). Tunics of this kind were designated by the Romans rectae, implying that they were made at an upright loom at Which the weaver stood to his work, thrusting the woof upwards (Pliny, 8:74). The modern Arabs use a procumbent loom, raised above the ground by short legs (Burckhardt, Notes, 1, 67). The Bible does not notice the loom itself, but speaks of the beam ( מָנוֹרso called from its resemblance to a ploughman's yoke) to which the warp was attached (1Sa_17:7; 2Sa_21:19); and of the pin (מִסֶּכֶת, a term otherwise understood of the warp, as in the Sept. and the Vulg. [Gesenius, Thesaur. p. 890]) to which the cloth was fixed, and on which it was rolled (Jdg_16:14). We have also notice of the shuttle ( אֶרֶגdenoting both the web and the shuttle), which is described by a term significant of the act of weaving (Job_7:6); the thrum (דִּלָּה) or threads which attached the web to the beam (Isa_38:12, marg.); and the web itself (Jdg_16:14; A. V. beam). Whether the two terms in Lev_13:48, rendered warp (שְׁתַי) and woof (עֵרֶב), really mean these admits of doubt, inasmuch as it is not easy to see how the one could be affected with leprosy without the other: perhaps the terms refer to certain kinds of texture (Knobel, ad loc.). The shuttle is occasionally dispensed with, the woof being passed through with the hand (Robinson, Bibl. Res. 1, 169). The speed with which the weaver used his shuttle, and the decisive manner in which he separated the web from the thrum. when his work was done, supplied vivid images the former of the rapid passage of life (Job_7:6), the latter of sudden death (Isa_38:12).
The textures produced by the Jewish weavers were very various. The coarser kinds, such as tent-cloth, sackcloth, and the hairy garments of the poor, were made of goat's or camel's hair (Exo_26:7; Mat_3:4). Wool was extensively used for ordinary clothing (Lev_13:47 Pro_27:26; Pro_31:13; Eze_27:18); while for finer work flax was used, varying in quality, and producing the different textures described in the Bible as linen and fine linen. The mixture of wool and flax in cloth intended for a garment was interdicted (Lev_19:19; Deu_32:11). With regard to the ornamental kinds of work, the needlework and the work of the cunning workman have already been discussed under the head of NEEDLEWORK to the effect that both kinds were produced in the loom, and that the distinction between them lay in the addition of a device or pattern in the latter, the rikmah consisting simply of a variegated stuff without a pattern. We may further notice the terms
(1) shabats (שָׁבִוֹ) and tashbets ( תִּשְׁבֵּוֹ), applied to the robes of the priest (Exo_28:4; Exo_28:39), and signifying tesselated (A. V. broidered), i.e. with depressions probably of a square shape worked in it, similar to the texture described by the Romans under the term scutulautus (Pliny, 8:73; Juvenal, 2, 97); this was produced in the loom, as it is expressly said to be the work of the weaver (Exo_39:27);
(2) moshar (מָשְׁזָר) (A. V. twined), applied to the fine linen out of which the curtains of the tabernacle and the sacerdotal vestments were made (Exo_26:1; Exo_28:6, etc.); in this texture each thread consisted of several finer threads twisted together, as is described to have been the case with the famed corselet of Amasis (Herod. 3, 47);
(3) mishbetsdth zahab ( מַשְׁבְּצוֹת זָהָב) (A. V. of wrought gold), textures in which gold-thread was interwoven (Psa_45:13). The Babylonians were particularly skilful in this branch of weaving, and embroidered groups of men or animals on the robes (Pliny, 8:74; Layard, Nineveh, 2, 413). The goodly Babylonish garment secreted by Achan was probably of this character (Jos_7:21). The sacerdotal vestments arc said to have been woven in one piece without the intervention of any needlework to join the seams (Josephus, Ant. 3, 7, 4). The coat without seam χιτών ἄῤῥαφος), worn by Jesus at the time of his crucifixion (Joh_19:23), was probably of a sacerdotal character in this respect, but made of a less costly material (Carpzov, Appar. p. 72). SEE WEB.
CYCLOPEDIA OF BIBLICAL, THEOLOGICAL AND ECCLESIASTICAL
press 1895.
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