Prayer

VIEW:12 DATA:01-04-2020

PRAYER.—Prayer in the Bible is the uplifting of the heart to God with whatever motive. It includes supplication, whether in view of material or of spiritual needs; intercession, for individuals or communities; confession of sin—but also assertion of righteousness; adoration; colloquy with God; vows; thanksgiving; blessing; Imprecation. The results are chiefly objective and external. But the apparent failure of prayer may be more instructive than its outward success. (Apart from Christ’s prayer in Gethsemane [Mar_14:35 ff. ||], take St. Paul’s for the removal of his affliction [2Co_12:8 f.].) Failure makes way for a boon greater than the one denied. Such cases would support the view that prayer is reflex in its action, specially potent in a subjective, inward, spiritual sense. Intercessory prayer must on the lowest view be of great altruistic value; while a recognition of God’s personality makes natural the belief that He may control events in answer to prayer made according to His will.
1. Terminology
(i.) In OT.—(1) The moat usual noun (tephillah) and the verb (primarily of intercession) connected with it are possibly derived from a root meaning ‘to cut.’ If so, this might hark back to days when devotees lacerated their flesh in worship (cf. 1Ki_18:28). Another word (used only of prayer to God) is from a root of similar meaning Some conjecture that the Jewish tephillin (phylacteries) originated as substitutes for such marks of laceration. tephillah may, however, indicate merely ‘intervention.’
(2) Several words mean ‘to call.’ To ‘call on the Name’ is to worship (e.g. Gen_4:26). Others mean to call for the redress of wrongs (e.g. Jdg_3:9), or for help in trouble (e.g. Psa_72:12). One noun is a ‘ringing outcry’ (e.g. Psa_17:1).
(3) It is natural to find words meaning ‘seek’ (e.g. Amo_5:4; a different word in Hos_5:15 ‘to seek God’s face’), ‘ask’ (e.g. Psa_105:40). To all such words, and generally, the correlative is ‘hear’ or ‘answer.’
(4) Some expressions are anthropomorphic:—‘to encounter,’ ‘fall upon’ in order to supplicate or intercede (e.g. Jer_7:16); ‘to make the face of God pleasant,’ i.e. to appease (e.g. Exo_32:11), thus equivalent to a more general word, ‘to crave favour’ (e.g. Deu_3:23).
(5) Other terms regard the suppliant’s state of mind:—prayer is ‘an outpouring of soul’ (e.g. Psa_62:8); or ‘a meditation’ (e.g. Joh_15:4 RVm [Note: Revised Version margin.] ); or ‘complaint’ (e.g. Psa_142:2); or the original connotation may be physical,—‘to bow down’ (Ezr_6:10, cf. Eph_3:14), ‘to whisper’ (Isa_26:16 RVm [Note: Revised Version margin.] ).
(ii.) In NT.—(1) The classical Gr. word (proseuchomai) is largely used. Unlike most OT words, this is used for prayer to God only. A related word (euchomai) is by itself little more than wish’ (e.g. Rom_9:3), and needs supplementing to mean ‘prayer’ (e.g. 2Co_13:7). The corresponding noun (euchç) usually means ‘vow’ (e.g. Act_18:18); but ‘prayer’ in Jam_5:15.
(2) ‘To call on the Name’ or invoke in prayer (e.g. Act_9:14).
(3) The words for ‘seek’ and ‘ask’ may be used of requests or inquiries made to man (e.g. Act_8:34), and do not of themselves connote worship. One word denotes the request of the will (e.g. Mat_6:8), another the request of need (e.g. Act_8:22), another the form of the request (e.g. Joh_17:9, cf. RVm [Note: Revised Version margin.] ).
(4) The OT ‘encounter’ has NT equivalent used of intercession (e.g. Rom_8:27).
(5) Prayer is a ‘struggle’ (e.g. Rom_15:30). One picturesque word (hike tçria), found only in Heb_5:7, suggests the olive branches held forth by suppliants.
2. Place, time, and circumstance
(i.) Place.—While no restriction is suggested at any period (cf. e.g. Gen_24:12-13, Jon_2:1, Psa_42:6; Psa_61:2, Dan_6:10, Luk_6:12, Act_16:24-25; Act_21:6), and is disclaimed by Christ in view of true worship (Joh_4:21-23), yet naturally specific worship-centres were regarded as appropriate: thus in early times Shiloh, where the ark rested (1Sa_1:9-10), Mizpah (1Sa_7:5, 1Ma_3:48), Gibeon (1Ki_3:4 ff.). But, later, the Temple was the place where (Isa_37:14 ff; Isa_56:7) or (in absence) ‘toward’ which prayer was offered (1Ki_8:29-30 etc., Psa_28:2, Dan_6:10, 1Es_4:56). Synagogues afforded, in later times, local prayer-centres. Where there was no synagogue, a spot outside the town was chosen, near some stream, for hand-washing before prayer (Act_16:13; Act_16:16). In the NT we find Apostles going to the Temple (Act_3:1); and St. Paul attended the synagogue on his mission journeys (Act_17:1-2). Distinctively Christian worship was held in ordinary buildings (Act_1:13-14; Act_4:23; Act_12:12, Col_4:15)—a practice made natural by Jewish arrangements for private prayer (Dan_6:10, Jdt_8:6; Jdt_10:2, Mat_6:8, Act_10:9; Act_10:30) or for Passover celebration (Mat_26:16). Ostentatious praying at street corners is discouraged by Christ (Mat_6:5).
(ii.) Time.—It became a custom to pray thrice daily, i.e. at the 3rd, 6th, and 9th hours (cf. ? Psa_55:17 [may mean ‘all day long’], Dan_6:10, Act_3:1; Act_10:9; Act_10:30; cf. Act_2:15; Act_1:1-26). For instances of ‘grace before meat,’ cf. 1Sa_9:13, Mat_15:35, Act_27:35, and the Paschal meal.
(iii.) Circumstance
(1) Attitude: (a) standing (e.g. Gen_18:22, 1Sa_1:26, Neh_9:5, Mar_11:25, Luk_18:11; Luk_18:13 [the usual Jewish mode, not followed by early Christian Church save on Sundays and the days between Easter and Whitsun]); (b) kneeling (Psa_95:6, Isa_45:23, 1Ki_8:54, Ezr_9:6, Dan_6:10, Luk_22:41, Act_7:60; Act_9:40; Act_20:35; Act_21:5, Eph_3:14); (c) prostrate, face to ground (Exo_34:6, Neh_8:6, 1Es_8:91, Jdt_9:1, 2Ma_13:12, Mat_26:39); face between knees (1Ki_18:42, cf. ? Psa_35:13 b); (d) sitting (? 2Sa_7:18); (e) hands uplifted (Psa_28:2; Psa_63:4; Psa_134:2, Lam_2:19; Lam_3:41, 2Ma_3:20, 1Ti_2:3) or extended [symbol of reception from God?] (Exo_9:20, 1Ki_8:22, Isa_1:16, Ezr_9:5, Psa_77:2 [ct. AV [Note: Authorized Version.] ]).
(2) Forms of prayer: (a) formulæ (Deu_21:7-8; Deu_26:5-15); (b) the Lord’s Prayer; (c) allusion to the Baptist’s (Luk_11:1); (d) Christ’s repeated prayer (Mat_26:44); (e) allusion to ‘vain repetitions’ or ‘battology’ (Mat_6:7, cf. Sir_7:14).
(3) Incense. The OT word sometimes means merely the smoke from a sacrifice. Real incense was (certainly in later OT period) in use at sacrificial ceremonies, with which prayer was probably always associated (cf. Gen_12:6). Incense typifies prayer (Psa_141:2; cf. Jer_11:12, Mal_1:11, Luk_1:10, Rev_5:8; Rev_8:3-4).
(4) Fasting. Being appropriate for times of solicitude and sorrow, fasting naturally became associated with prayer (Psa_35:13), especially after the Exile (Neh_1:4, Dan_9:3; cf. Luk_2:37), and was continued in the Christian Church (Act_13:3; Act_14:23, Mat_9:16). The following AV [Note: Authorized Version.] allusions to fasting coupled with prayer are absent from RV [Note: Revised Version.] (but see RVm [Note: Revised Version margin.] ):—Mat_17:21, Mar_9:29, Act_10:30, 1Co_7:5.
3. Prayer in the OT
(i.) Patriarchal Period.—Prayer is (1) colloquy with God (e.g. Gen_15:1-2; Gen_15:7-8; Gen_17:15-16; Gen_17:22); (2) intercession (e.g. Gen_17:16; Gen_18:23 ff.); (3) personal supplication (e.g. Gen_15:2; Gen_32:11; Gen_43:14); (4) asseveration (e.g. Gen_14:22); (5) vow (e.g. Gen_28:20; see art. Vows).
(ii.) The Law (i.e. as codified and expanded in later times).—The reticence as to prayer might suggest that it is voluntary and not patient of legislation; but in OT it is less a general duty (ct. [Note: t. contrast.] NT) than a prophetic privilege (especially re intercession); cf. Gen_20:7 and below, §§ iii.–vi. Note, however, the formulæ for thanksgiving (Deu_26:5-11), assertion of obedience (Deu_26:13-14, ct. [Note: t. contrast.] NT), supplication (Deu_26:16), expiation (Deu_21:7-8).
(iii.) Moses to Judges.—(1) Moses pre-eminently a man of prayer and an intercessor (e.g. Exo_8:12; Exo_8:30; Exo_32:11-13; Exo_32:32, cf. Jer_15:1): colloquy with God (Exo_3:1-22; Exo_4:1-31; Exo_5:22; Exo_6:1; Exo_6:10; Exo_6:12; Exo_6:28-30, Deu_3:23-25), appeal in crises (Exo_5:22, Num_11:11), prophetic blessing (Deu_33:6-11); (2) Joshua’s prayer after defeat (Jos_7:7-9), and in battle (Jos_10:14); (3) Gideon’s colloquy (Jdg_6:11-24); (4) Israelites’ frequent cry for help (Jdg_3:9; Jdg_3:15; Jdg_6:6 etc.).
(iv.) Kingdom Period.—(1) Samuel, like Moses, an intercessor (1Sa_7:5-6; 1Sa_7:9; 1Sa_8:6; 1Sa_8:10; 1Sa_8:21; 1Sa_12:23; 1Sa_15:11): colloquy (1Sa_16:1-3; cf. 1Sa_3:10-11); (2) David: apart from the Psalms, with which his connexion is dubious, the following prayers may be noted, especially the last:—for guidance (1Sa_23:2; 1Sa_30:8 [consulting ephod]), on behalf of child (2Sa_12:18), prayer of asseveration (1Sa_24:12-15; 1Sa_25:22 [a threat]), confession (2Sa_24:17), adoration, etc. (2Sa_7:18-29); (3) Solomon’s prayer for wisdom (1Ki_3:6 ff.; note the elaborate intercession attributed to him at dedication of Temple, 1Ki_8:22-53, where (ct. [Note: t. contrast.] 1Ki_8:63) sacrifice is not mentioned! The Temple is a house of prayer); (4) Elijah’s intercession (1Ki_18:36-37), colloquy (1Ki_19:9-11), prayer before miracle (1Ki_17:20-21), so also Elisha (2Ki_4:33; 2Ki_6:17); (5) Hezekiah prays in national crisis (2Ki_19:15) and in illness (2Ki_20:3); note his assertion of righteousness. For this period see also § v.
(v.) The Prophets.—Intercession in attitude, action, word, characterizes the prophets (much more than the priests, but cf. Joe_2:17), whether the earlier prophets, (§ iv. above) or those whose writings are extant. The reason lay in the prophet’s Divine call, his vision of the Divine will (so a ‘seer’), and his forthtelling of the Divine message. Hence comes prayerful expectancy (e.g. Jer_42:4), in the spirit of Hab_2:1; and intercession to avert disaster (e.g. Amo_7:2-3; Amo_7:5-6, Isa_63:9-17, and vividly Jer_14:15 [where observe the colloquy of persistent intercession not withstanding Divine discouragement]), combined with prayer in view of personal difficulty (e.g. Jer_20:7-13).
(vi.) Exile and Return.—In this period prayer looms large, owing to the cessation of sacrificial worship and the realization of chastisement. Accordingly confession and a humble sense of dependence are prominent. The following passages should be studied: Isa_63:7 to Isa_64:12, Ezr_9:5-15, Neh_1:4-11; Neh_9:5-38 (cf. retrospective Psalms, e.g. 106), Dan_9:4-19. Further, note the personal prayer-habit of Jewish leaders (Dan_6:1-28, Ezr_8:21-23). Nehemiah’s prayer is often ejaculatory (Neh_2:4; Neh_4:4), and sometimes betrays self-complacency (Neh_5:13; Neh_13:14; Neh_13:22).
(vii.) Psalms, Proverbs, Job.—The Book of ‘Praises’ might be appropriately called also the Book of ‘Prayers.’ (Five only are so described in title: Psa_17:1-15; Psa_86:1-17; Psa_90:1-17; Psa_102:1-28; Psa_142:1-7, but cf. Psa_72:20, Hab_3:1.) (1) Throughout the Psalms, prayer—whether of the poet as an individual or as representing the nation—is specially an outpouring—artless and impulsive—of varied experiences, needs, desires. Hence typical psalms exhibit transitions of thought and alternation of mood (e.g. Psa_6:7-10; Psa_42:1-11; Psa_69:20; Psa_69:27; Psa_69:30; Psa_77:9-11; Psa_109:23-30). (2) The blessing sought is oftener material or external, like rescue from trouble or chastisement. Not seldom, however, there is a more spiritual aim: in Psa_51:1-19 pardon is sought for its own sake, not to avert punishment, and Psa_119:1-176 is notable for repeated requests for inward enlightenment and quickening. The trend of the whole collection is indicated by its ready and natural adaptation to NT ideals of prayer. In estimating psalms which express vindictive and imprecatory sentiments, we should note that they breathe abhorrence of evil, and are not the utterance of private malice. Even on the lowest view they would illustrate the human element in the Scriptures, and the progressive nature of revelation, throwing into vivid relief the Gospel temper and teaching. The propriety of their regular use in public worship need not be discussed here.
Proverbs. Note the suggestive allusion to the character of a suppliant (Pro_15:6; Pro_15:29; Pro_28:9; cf. Psa_145:18-19, Jdt_8:31, Sir_35:16, Jam_5:10), and Agur’s prayer (Pro_30:7-9).
Job. In this dramatic poem Job’s objections to his friends’ criticisms often take the form of daring expostulation directly addressed to God (e.g. especially ch. 10). As a ‘cry in the dark’ the book re-echoes prayers like Psa_88:1-18; but the conflict of doubt culminates in the colloquy between God and Job, in which the latter expresses the reverent submission of faith (Job_42:1-6).
4. Prayer in the Apocrypha.—The Apocr. [Note: Apocrypha, Apocryphal.] books—of fiction, fable, history, with apocalyptic and sapiential writings—are of very unequal value, but contain many prayers. The ideas are on the whole admirable, sometimes reaching a distinctively NT level; the thought in 2Ma_12:44 as to prayer in relation to the dead is noteworthy (cf. below, 2 Es. and Bar.). As the books are little read, it may be well to take them in order, giving fairly full reference to relevant passages.
1 Esdras. Zerubbabel’s thanksgiving (4:68–69); prayer for journey, with confession (8:78–90).
2 Esdras. Confession and historical retrospect (3:4–36), colloquy with Uriel (4–14, where note the allusion to various OT intercessors, all useless at judgment-day, 7:102, 112 [not in AV [Note: Authorized Version.] ]).
Tobit. Prevailing prayer of Tobit and Sarah (Tob_3:1-15); Tobias urged to pray (Tob_4:19)—prays in nuptial room (Tob_8:4-8); thanksgiving of Raguel (Tob_8:15-17), Tobit (Tob_11:14-15; Tob_11:17; Tob_11:13).
Judith. Except where general supplication is made (Jdt_4:9 to Jdt_13:16; Jdt_6:18-19; Jdt_7:29), or where Judith’s intercession is sought (Jdt_8:31), prayer in this romance is of a very unworthy kind: prayer for the success of a trick (ch. 9); prayer and the plans of Holofernes (Jdt_11:17-18); prayer before slaying him (Jdt_13:4-5).
Ad. Esther. Prayers of Mordecai (13:8–18) and Esther (14:3–19) in national peril.
Wisdom. Chs. 9–19 are in prayer-form. Note the picturesque illustration of manna and the morning prayer (Wis_16:27-28).
Sirach. In this book prayer reaches heights: value of prayer (Sir_21:5), true prayer heard of God (Sir_35:13-17), prayer in sickness (Sir_38:8; Sir_38:14, cf. Jam_5:14-16), for deliverance from sin (Sir_23:1-5), prayer and alms (Sir_7:10), ‘battology’ (Sir_7:14, cf. Mat_6:7), prayer and revenge (Sir_28:1-4, cf. Mat_6:14; Mat_18:21-22), national prayer against foe (Sir_36:1-17), thanksgiving, led by Simon (Sir_50:21-24), author’s closing prayer (Sir_51:1-12).
Baruch. Jews of Babylon ask those of Jerusalem to pray for welfare of Nebuchadnezzar (1:11; cf. Ezr_6:10, Jer_29:7, 1Ti_2:2); prayer and confession of captive Israelites (1:15–3:8, where note prayer by the dead, 3:4, but see RVm [Note: Revised Version margin.] ).
Song of the Three. Prayer and confession of Azarias before the Benedicite (vv. 1–22; cf. Ezr_9:1-15, Dan_9:1-27).
Susanna. Her prevailing prayer (vv. 42–44).
Bel. Brief prayer by Habakkuk (v. 35), Daniel (v. 38), king of Babylon (v. 41).
Prayer of Manasses. For pardon.
Maccabees. The two books are quite distinct, 1 Mac. being much the more reliable as history. Prayer is very prominent throughout the whole Maccabæan struggle,—before, during, and after battles (1Ma_3:46-53; 1Ma_4:10; 1Ma_4:24; 1Ma_4:30-33; 1Ma_4:40; 1Ma_4:55; 1Ma_7:33-38; 1Ma_7:41-42; 1Ma_9:46; 1Ma_11:71, 2Ma_1:24-29; 2Ma_3:22; 2Ma_10:13; 2Ma_10:25; 2Ma_10:33; 2Ma_11:6; 2Ma_12:15; 2Ma_12:28; 2Ma_12:42; 2Ma_13:10-12; 2Ma_13:14; 2Ma_14:16; 2Ma_14:34-36; 2Ma_15:22-24; 2Ma_15:28; 2Ma_15:27). Note specially in 2 Mac. the allusion to the efficacy of prayer, etc., of the living for the dead (1Ma_12:44-45. cf. baptism for dead, 1Co_15:29, and [?] 2Ti_1:18), and prayer of the dead for the living (1Ma_15:12-14; cf. angelic intercession, Zec_1:12).
5. Prayer in the NT
I. Example and teaching of Jesus Christ.—The special character of the Fourth Gospel should be remembered. Of the Synoptics, Lk. is specially instructive as to prayer (cf. Acts also). For Lord’s Prayer, see separate article.
(i.) Christ’s example
(a) Prays at great moments in His life: baptism (Luk_3:21), election of Apostles (Luk_6:12-13), miracles (Luk_9:16; cf. Joh_6:23, Mar_7:34 [implied] Mar_9:29, Joh_9:30-33 [implied] Joh_11:41-42), transfiguration (Luk_9:29); Gethsemane (Luk_22:39-46), crucifixion (Mat_27:46, Luk_23:46); (b) intercedes for disciples (Joh_17:1-26), Peter (Luk_22:32), soldiers (Luk_23:34); for His intercession in glory, see below, § II. (ii.) (1).
(ii.) Christ’s teaching.—The range of prayer is chiefly (ct. [Note: t. contrast.] OT) for spiritual blessing (cf. Lord’s Prayer, and esp. Mat_6:33), but not exclusively so (‘daily bread’ in Lord’s Prayer and Mat_24:20). The conditions and requisites of prayer are numerous.—(a) Earnestness [cf. urgent supplication in OT, esp. Psalms] (Luk_11:5-13, where note juxtaposition with Lord’s Prayer, Luk_18:1-8); and His attitude to the Syrophœnician seems to teach urgency of petition (Mar_7:27). (b) Humility (Luk_18:9-14; the juxtaposition with preceding parable is suggestive, and ct. [Note: t. contrast.] OT assertion of righteousness; e.g. in Dt. and Neh. [see above, 3 (vi.)], Luk_17:10); ambition rebuked (Mat_20:20-23). (c) A forgiving spirit: as in Sir. (see above, § 4). (d) Privacy recommended; see above, § 2 (i.) end, and cf. Christ’s own example of solitary prayer (Luk_6:12). (e) Without ‘battology’; see above, § 2 (iii.) (2), where the reff. show that the repetition discouraged is that of mere mechanical prayer (cf. heathen incantations) or of pretence (Mar_12:40). (f) With faith. Mar_11:23 contains just such hyperbole as would appeal to an Eastern mind and enforce the value of prayer; while the seeming paradox of v. 24 must be taken along with this and understood in the light of Christ’s general teaching. The need of faith is further illustrated by Christ’s attitude to those seeking aid (e.g. Mat_8:13; Mat_9:28, Mar_5:35; Mar_9:23, Luk_8:48). (g) Agreement when two or three join in prayer (Mat_18:19-20). (h) In His name (Joh_14:13; Joh_15:16; Joh_16:23-25). This specially Johannine feature suggests frame of mind rather than form of speech (cf. Mat_18:5; Mat_18:20; Mat_10:22 etc.; on the other hand, cf. Act_3:6; Act_3:10). For the Christology it supports, see below, § II. (ii.) 1.
II. Customs and ideas in Apostolic times.—Evidence is afforded by Acts (where the prominence given to prayer is natural if Lk. wrote it, see above, § I.), and by Epp., whose writers had inherited the best traditions of Jewish piety and had also assimilated their Master’s teaching (which, however, they may not in every point have grasped fully). A glimpse of prayer-triumphs would be afforded by such passages as Act_3:10; Act_4:31; Act_9:40; Act_10:4; Act_12:5; Act_12:12; Act_16:25; Act_28:8. One or two detailed points have already come up for notice (see above § 2 (i. ii. iii. 1. 4), 5 (I. ii. (h)), but it may be well now to collect, from Acts to the Apocalypse, some passages showing the practice and teaching as to prayer in the Apostolic Church.
(i.) Prayer is found in connexion with:—(1) Laying on of hands: (a) in healing (Act_28:8; cf. Act_9:17, (see below (3)); (b) after baptism (Act_8:14-17; cf. Act_19:6); (c) on appointment to office (Act_6:6; Act_13:3), with which also prayerful lot-casting is associated (Act_1:24; Act_1:26, cf. Pro_16:33). (2) Public worship (1Ti_2:1-15). (a) Both sexes participate (cf. 1Ti_5:6, 1Co_11:4-5); (b) prayer and gift of tongues (1Co_14:14; 1Co_14:16, where it is suggested that the head as well as the heart is concerned with prayer); (c) ‘state-prayers’ in the Apostolic Church (1Ti_2:1 f.; cf. § 4 ‘Baruch’). (3) Sickness (Jam_5:13-16, where notice conjunction of prayer and outward means [for unction cf. Mar_6:13] with confession; physical and spiritual healing are associated, and both with prayer; see above, § 4 ‘Sirach’).
(ii.) (1) A distinctive Idea in NT prayer is the work of the Holy Spirit. He aids us in prayer (Rom_8:14-16, Eph_6:18, Jud_1:20), interceding for us (Rom_8:26). Christ also intercedes (Rom_8:34, Heb_7:25; cf. § 5 I. (1.) (b)). Ct. [Note: t. contrast.] presentation of prayer to God in Rev_5:8; Rev_8:4. By Christ we enjoy free access to God (Gal_4:4-7, Eph_2:18; Eph_3:12, Heb_4:15-16; Heb_10:19-22; see above, § 5 I. (II.) (h)); prayer offered to Christ direct (Act_7:59-60; Act_9:14 (?), 1Co_1:2 (?)). (2) Prayer needs faith (Jam_1:6-8, 1Ti_2:8 RVm [Note: Revised Version margin.] , Heb_10:22), must have right alms (Jam_4:3), and be backed by conduct (1Jn_3:22, cf. above, § 3 (vii.) ‘Proverbs’). Such prayer succeeds (Jam_5:16-18, 1Jn_3:22; 1Jn_5:14-15). Prayer for temporal gifts is not very conspicuous in NT, but see Rom_1:10, 2Co_12:8, Php_4:6. (3) Exhortations to prayer (Rom_12:12, Col_4:2, 1Th_5:16, 1Pe_4:7, Jud_1:20). (4) Reminiscences of OT occur in prayer as colloquy (Act_9:13-16; Act_22:17-21; cf. § 3), as struggle (Rom_15:30, Col_2:1; Col_4:12; cf. Gen_32:24), as cry for vengeance (Rev_6:9-10, ct. [Note: t. contrast.] 1Ti_2:8). (5) Intercession, which in OT is specially characteristic of the prophetic office, is here a general duty, and is very prominent: Apostles for converts (Rom_10:1; Rom_15:5, 2Co_13:7, Eph_1:15; Eph_3:14, Php_1:4; Php_1:9, Col_1:9; Col_2:1, 1Th_1:2, 2Th_1:11, Phm_1:4, 3Jn_1:2); converts for Apostles (Act_12:5, Rom_15:30, 2Co_1:11; 2Co_9:14, Col_4:3, 2Th_3:1, Phm_1:22); for one another (Jam_5:15, 1Jn_5:16 [within limit]). (6) Thanksgiving abounds (Rom_1:3, 1Co_1:4, 2Co_2:14; 2Co_8:15, Php_1:3, Col_1:3, 1Th_1:2; 1Th_2:13, 2Th_1:3; 2Th_2:13, 1Ti_1:12, 2Ti_1:3). (7) Note also the salutation and blessing at the beginning and close of Epistles. The NT closes with a threefold prayer for Christ’s coming (Rev_22:17; Rev_22:20).
H. F. B. Compston.
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible
Edited by James Hastings, D.D. Published in 1909

(1) Techinnah, from chandra "to be gracious"; hithpael, "to entreat grace"; Greek deesis.
(2) Tephillah, from hithpael of paalal, "to seek judgment"; Greek proseuchee. "Prayer," proseuchee, for obtaining blessings, implying devotion; "supplication," deesis, for averting evil. "Prayer" the general term; "supplication" with imploring earnestness (implying the suppliant's sense of need); enteuxis, intercession for others, coming near to God, seeking an audience in person, generally in another's behalf. Thanksgiving should always go with prayer (1Ti_2:1; Eph_6:18; Php_4:6). An instinct of every nation, even pagan (Isa_16:12; Isa_44:17; Isa_45:20; 1Ki_18:26). In Seth's days, when Enos (frailty) was born to him, "men began to call upon the name of Jehovah."
The name Enos embodies the Sethites' sense of human frailty urging them to prayer, in contrast to the Cainites' self sufficient "pride of countenance" which keeps sinners from seeking God (Psa_10:4). While the Cainites by building a city and inventing arts were founding the kingdom of this world, the Sethites by united calling upon Jehovah constituted the first church, and laid the foundation of the kingdom of God. The name of God is His whole self manifestation in relation to man. On this revealed divine character of grace and power believers fasten their prayers (Psa_119:49; Pro_18:10). The sceptic's objections to prayer are:
(1) The immutability of nature's general laws. But nature is only another name for the will of God; that will provides for answers to prayer in harmony with the general scheme of His government of the world. There are higher laws than those observed in the material world; the latter are subordinate to the former.
(2) God's predestinating power, wisdom and love make prayer useless and needless. But man is made a free moral agent; and God who predestines the blessing predestines prayer as the means to that end (Mat_24:20).
Prayer produces and strengthens in the mind conscious dependence on God, faith, and love, the state for receiving and appreciating God's blessing ordained in answer to prayer. Moreover prayer does not supersede work; praying and working are complementary of each other (Neh_4:9). Our weakness drives us to cast ourselves on God's fatherly love, providence, and power. Our cf6 "Father knoweth what things we have need of before we ask Him"; "we know not what things we should pray for as we ought" (Mat_6:8; Rom_8:26). Yet "the Spirit helpeth our infirmities," and Jesus teaches us by the Lord's prayer how to pray (Luke 11). Nor is the blessing merely subjective; but we may pray for particular blessings, temporal and spiritual, in submission to God's will, for ourselves. cf6 "Thy will be done," (Mat_6:10) and "if we ask anything according to His will" (1Jn_5:14-15), is the limitation. Every truly believing prayer contains this limitation. God then grants either the petition or something better than it, so that no true prayer is lost (2Co_12:7-10; Luk_22:42; Heb_5:7).
Also "intercessions" for others (the effect of which cannot be merely subjective) are enjoined (1Ti_2:1). God promises blessings in answer to prayer, as the indispensable condition of the gift (Mat_7:7-8). Examples confirm the command to pray. None prayed so often as Jesus; early in the morning "a great while before day" (Mar_1:35), "all the night" (Luk_6:12), in Gethsemane with an "agony" that drew from Him "sweat as it were great drops of blood falling to the ground" (Luk_22:44); "when He was being baptized, and praying, the heaven was opened" (Luk_3:21); "as He prayed" He was transfigured (Luk_9:29); "as He was praying in a certain place" (Luk_11:1) one disciple struck by His prayer said, "Lord teach us to pray as John also taught his disciples" (Luk_11:1) (an interesting fact here only recorded). Above all, the intercession in John 17, His beginning of advocacy with the Father for us; an example of the highest and holiest spiritual communion.
The Holy Spirit in believers "maketh intercession for the saints according to the will of God." "He that searcheth the hearts knoweth what is the mind of the Spirit," and so casts off all that is imperfect and mistaken in our prayers, and answer s the Spirit who speaks in them what we would express aright but cannot (Rom_8:26-27; Rom_8:34). Then our Intercessor at God's right hand presents out prayers, accepted on the ground of His merits and blood (Joh_14:13; Joh_15:16; Joh_16:23-27). Thus God incarnate in the God-man Christ reconciles God's universal laws, i.e. His will, with our individual freedom, and His predestination with our prayers. Prayer is presupposed as the adjunct of sacrifice, from the beginning (Gen_4:4). Jacob's wrestling with the divine Angel and prayer, in Genesis 32, is the first full description of prayer; compare the inspired continent on it, Hos_12:3-6. But Abraham's intercession for Sodom (Genesis 18), and Isaac's, preceded (Gen_24:63 margin).
Moses' law prescribes sacrifice, and takes for granted prayer (except the express direction for prayer, Deu_26:12-15) in connection with it and the sanctuary, as both help us to realize God's presence; but especially as prayer needs a propitiation or atonement to rest on, such as the blood of the sacrifices symbolizes. The temple is "the house of prayer" (Isa_56:7). He that hears player (Psa_65:2) three manifested Himself. Toward it the prayer of the nation, and of individuals, however distant, was directed (1Ki_8:30; 1Ki_8:35; 1Ki_8:38; 1Ki_8:46-49; Dan_6:10; Psa_5:7; Psa_28:2; Psa_138:2). Men used to go to the temple at regular hours for private prayer (Luk_18:10; Act_3:1). Prayer apparently accompanied all offerings, as did the incense its symbol (Psa_141:2; Rev_8:3-4; Luk_1:10; Deu_26:12-15, where a form of prayer is prescribed).
The housetop and mountain were chosen places for prayer, raised above the world. The threefold Aaronic blessing (Num_6:24-26), and Moses' prayer at the moving (expanded in Psalm 68) and resting of the ark (Num_10:35-36), are other forms of prayer in the Mosaic legislation. The regular times of prayer were the third (morning sacrifice), sixth, and ninth hours (evening sacrifice); Psa_55:17; Dan_6:10; Dan_9:21; Act_3:1; Act_10:3; Act_2:15. "Seven times a day" (Psa_119:164), i.e. continually, seven being the number for perfection; compare Psa_119:147-148, by night. Grace was said before meals (Mat_15:36; Act_27:35).
Posture. Standing: 1Sa_1:26; Mat_6:5; Mar_11:25; Luk_18:11. Kneeling, in humiliation: 1Ki_8:54; 2Ch_6:13; Ezr_9:5; Psa_95:6; Dan_6:10. Prostration: Jos_7:6; 1Ki_18:42; Neh_8:6. In the Christian church, kneeling only: (Act_7:60) Stephen, (Act_9:40) Peter, (Act_20:36; Act_21:5) Paul imitating Christ in Gethsemane. In post apostolic times, standing on the Lord's day, and from Easter to Whitsunday, to commemorate His resurrection and ours with Him. The hands were lifted up, or spread out (Exo_9:33; Psa_28:2; Psa_134:2).
The spiritual songs in the Pentateuch (Exo_15:1-19; Num_21:17-18; Deuteronomy 32) and succeeding books (Judges 5; 1Sa_2:1-10; 1Sa_2:2 Samuel 22; 1Ki_8:23-53; Neh_9:5-38) abound in prayer accompanied with praise. The Psalms give inspired forms of prayer for public and private use. Hezekiah prayed in the spirit of the Psalms. The prophets contain many such prayers (Isaiah 12; 25; 26; Isa_37:14-20; Isa_38:9-20; Dan_9:3-23). The praise and the reading and expounding of the law constituted the service of the synagogue under the sheliach hatsibbur, "the apostle" or "legate of the church."
THE LORD'S PRAYER, (Mat_6:9-13) couched in the plural, cf6 "when ye pray, say, Our Father ... give us ... forgive us ... lead us" shows that forms suit public joint prayer. cf6 "Thou when thou prayest, enter into thy closet ... shut thy door, pray to thy Father [which is] in secret" (Mat_6:6); in enjoining private prayer Christ gives no form. The Lord's prayer is our model. The invocation is the plea on which the prayer is grounded, God's revealed Fatherhood. Foremost stand the three petitions for hallowing God's name, God's kingdom coming, God's will being done below as above; then our four needs, for bread for body and soul, for forgiveness producing a forgiving spirit in ourselves, or not being led into temptation, and for deliverance from evil. The petitions are seven the sacred number (Mat_6:5-13).
Prayer was the breath of the early church's life (Act_2:42; Act_1:24-25; Act_4:24-30; Act_6:4; Act_6:6; Act_12:5; Act_13:2-3; Act_16:25; Act_20:36; Act_21:5). So in the epistles (Eph_4:14-21; Rom_1:9-10; Rom_16:25-27; Php_1:3-11; Col_1:9-15; Heb_13:20-21; 1Pe_5:10-11). "With one accord" is the keynote of Acts (Act_1:14; Act_2:1; Act_2:46; Act_4:24; Act_5:12). The kind of prayer in each dispensation corresponds to its character: simple, childlike, asking for the needs of the family, in the patriarchal dispensation (Gen_15:2-3; Gen_17:18; Gen_25:21; Gen_24:12-14; Gen_18:23-32, which however is a larger prayer, namely, for Sodom; Gen_20:7; Gen_20:17). In the Mosaic dispensation the range of prayer is wider and loftier, namely, intercession for the elect nation.
So Moses (Num_11:2; Num_12:13; Num_21:7); Samuel (1Sa_7:5; 1Sa_12:19; 1Sa_12:23); David (2Sa_24:17-18); Hezekiah (2Ki_19:15-19); Isaiah (Isa_19:4; 2Ch_32:20); Asa (2Ch_14:11); Jehoshaphat (2Ch_20:6-12); Daniel (Dan_9:20-21). Prayer for individuals is rarer: Hannah (1Sa_1:12), Hezekiah (2Ki_20:2), Samuel for Saul (1Sa_15:11; 1Sa_15:35). In the New Testament prayer is mainly for spiritual blessings: the church (Act_4:24-30), the apostles (Act_8:15), Cornelius (Act_10:4; Act_10:31), for Peter (Act_12:5), Paul (Act_16:25; 2Co_12:7-9); in connection with miraculous healings, etc., Peter for Tabitha (Act_9:40), the elders (Jas_5:14-16).
So in Old Testament Moses (Exo_8:12-30; Exo_15:25), Elijah (1Ki_17:20; 1Ki_18:36-37), Elisha (2Ki_4:33; 2Ki_6:17-18), Isaiah (2Ki_20:11). Intercessions, generally of prophets or priests, are the commonest prayer in the Old Testament. Besides those above, the man of God (1Ki_13:6), Nehemiah (Neh_1:6), Jeremiah (Jer_37:3; Jer_42:4), Job (Job_42:8). God's acceptance of prayer is taken for granted (Job_33:26; Job_22:27), provided it be prayer of the righteous (Pro_15:8; Pro_15:29; Joh_9:31), "in an acceptable time" (Psa_69:13; Isa_49:8; Isa_61:2), in the present day of grace (2Co_6:2).
Confession of sin, and the pleading God's past mercies as a ground of future mercies, characterize the seven (the perfect number) prayers given in full in the Old Testament: of David (2Sa_7:18; 2Sa_7:29), Solomon (2 Chronicles 6), Hezekiah (2 Kings 19), Jeremiah (Jer_32:16), Daniel (Dan_9:3), Nehemiah (Nehemiah 1; Nehemiah 9). In the New Testament Christ in the body at God's right hand "for us" is the object toward which faith looks, as formerly the Israelite's face was toward the temple. He endorses our prayers so that they find acceptance with God. Intercessions now should embrace the whole human brotherhood (Mat_5:44; Mat_9:38; 1Ti_2:2; 1Ti_2:8).
Requirements in prayer. Spiritual worship, in spirit and truth, not mere form (Mat_6:6; Joh_6:24; 1Co_14:15). No secret iniquity must be cherished (Psa_66:18; Pro_15:29; Pro_28:9; Jas_4:3; Isa_1:15). Hindrances to acceptance are pride (Job_35:12-13; Luk_18:14), hypocrisy (Job_27:8-10), doubt, double mindedness, and unbelief (Jas_1:6; Jer_29:13; Mar_11:24-25; Mat_21:22), not forgiving another, setting up idols in the heart (Eze_14:3). Doing His will, and asking according to His will, are the conditions of acceptable prayer (1Jn_3:22; 1Jn_5:14-15; Jas_5:16); also persevering importunity in prayer for ourselves, taught in the parable of the importunate widow; as importunity in intercession for others, that the Lord would give us the right spiritual food to set before them, is taught in that of the borrowed loaves (Luk_18:1, etc.; Luk_11:5-13).
Modes of prayer.
(1) Sighing meditation (hagigiy), intense prayer of the heart (margin Isa_26:16).
(2) Cry.
(3) Prayer "set in order" ("direct," 'atak), as the wood upon the altar, the shewbread on the table (Psa_5:1-3; Gen_22:9). Prayer is not to be at random; God has no pleasure in the sacrifice of fools (Ecc_5:1). The answer is to be "looked for," otherwise we do not believe in the efficacy of prayer (Hab_2:1; Mic_7:7). Faith realizes need, and looks to Him who can and will save. This is the reason of Peter's telling the impotent man, "look on us" (Act_3:4); expectancy and faith (so Mat_9:28).
(4) "Pouring out the heart before God"; emptying it of all its contents (1Sa_1:8; 1Sa_1:15; Lam_2:19; Psa_142:2; 1Pe_5:7; Psa_62:1; Psa_62:8, "waiteth," literally, is silent unto God.
(5) Ejaculation, as Nehemiah in an absolute king's presence, realizing the presence of the higher King (Neh_2:4), and amidst all his various businesses (Neh_5:19; Neh_13:14; Neh_13:22-31).
Fausset's Bible Dictionary
By Andrew Robert Fausset, co-Author of Jamieson, Fausset and Brown's 1888.

Prayer. The object of this article will be to touch briefly on —
i. The doctrine of Scripture as to the nature and efficacy of prayer;
ii. Its directions as to time, place and manner of prayer;
iii. Its types and examples of prayer.
1. Scripture does not give any theoretical explanation of the mystery which attaches to prayer. The difficulty of understanding real efficacy arises chiefly from two sources: from the belief that man lives under general laws, which in all cases must be fulfilled unalterably; and the opposing belief, that he is master of his own destiny, and need pray for no external blessing.
Now, Scripture, while, by the doctrine of spiritual influence, it entirely disposes of the latter difficulty, does not so entirely solve that part of the mystery, which depends on the nature of God. It places it clearly before us, and emphasizes, most strongly, those doctrines on which the difficulty turns. Yet, while this is so, on the other hand, the instinct of prayer is solemnly sanctioned and enforced on every page. Not only is its subjective effect asserted, but its real objective efficacy, as a means appointed by God for obtaining blessing, is both implied and expressed in the plainest terms. Thus, as usual in the case of such mysteries, the two apparently opposite truths are emphasized, because they are needful: to man's conception of his relation to God; their reconcilement is not, perhaps cannot be, fully revealed.
For, in fact, it is involved in that inscrutable mystery, which attends on the conception of any free action of man as necessary for the working out of the general laws of God's unchangeable will. At the same time, it is clearly implied that such a reconcilement exists, and that all the apparently isolated and independent exertions of man's spirit in prayer are, in some way, perfectly subordinated to the one supreme will of God, so as to form a part of his scheme of providence. It is also implied that the key to the mystery lies in the fact of man's spiritual unity with God in Christ, and of the consequent gift of the Holy Spirit.
So, also, is it said of the spiritual influence of the Holy Ghost on each individual mind that while, "we know not what to pray for, 'the indwelling' Spirit makes intercession for the saints, according to the will of God." Rom_8:26-27. Here, as probably in still other cases, the action of the Holy Spirit on the soul is to free agents, what the laws of nature are to things inanimate, and is the power which harmonizes free individual action with the universal will of God.
2. There are no directions, as to prayer, given in the Mosaic law: the duty is rather taken for granted, as an adjunct to sacrifice, than enforced or elaborated. It is hardly conceivable that, even from the beginning, public prayer did not follow every public sacrifice. Such a practice is alluded to in Luk_1:10, as common; and in one instance, at the offering of the first-fruits, it was ordained in a striking form. Deu_26:12-15.
In later times, it certainly grew into a regular service both in the Temple and in the synagogue. But, besides this public prayer, it was the custom of all at Jerusalem to go up to the Temple, at regular hours if possible, for private prayer, see Luk_18:10; Act_3:1, and those who were absent were wont to "open their windows toward Jerusalem," and pray "toward" the place of God's presence. 1Ki_8:46-49; Psa_5:7; Psa_28:2; Psa_138:2; Dan_6:10.
The regular hours of prayer seem to have been three, (see Psa_55:17; Dan_6:10,)
a. "the evening," that is the ninth hour, Act_3:1; Act_10:3, the hour of the evening sacrifice, Dan_9:21;
b. The "morning," that is, the third hour, Act_2:15, that of the morning sacrifice;
c. And the sixth hour, or "noonday."
"Grace before meat" would seem to have been a common practice. Mat_15:36; Act_27:35. The posture of prayer among the Jews seems to have been:
a. Most often standing, 1Sa_1:26; Mat_6:5; Mar_11:25; Luk_18:11,
b. Unless the prayer were offered with especial solemnity and humiliation, which was naturally expressed by kneeling, 1Ki_8:54, compare 2Ch_6:13; Ezr_9:5; Psa_95:8; Dan_6:10,
or prostration. Jos_7:6; 1Ki_18:42; Neh_8:6.
3. The only form of prayer given for perpetual use in the Old Testament is the one in Deu_26:5-15, connected with the offering of tithes and first-fruits, and containing, in simple form , the important elements of prayer, acknowledgment of God's mercy, self-dedication and prayer for future blessing. To this may, perhaps, be added the threefold blessing of Num_6:24-26, couched as it is in a precatory form, and the short prayer of Moses, Num_10:35-36, at the moving and resting of the cloud, the former of which was the germ of the 68th Psalm. Psalms 68.
But of the prayers recorded in the Old Testament, the two most remarkable are
a. Those of Solomon at the dedication of the Temple, 1Ki_8:23-58, and
b. Of Joshua, the high priest, and his colleagues, after the captivity. Neh_9:5-38.
It appears from the question of the disciples in Luk_11:1, and from Jewish tradition, that the chief teachers of the day gave special forms of prayer to their disciples as the badge of their discipleship and the best fruits of their learning.
All Christian prayer is, of course,
a. Based on the Lord's Prayer;
b. But its spirit is also guided by that of his prayer in Gethsemane,
c. And of the prayer recorded by St. John, Joh_17:1, the beginning of Christ's great work of intercession. The influence of these prayers is more distinctly traced in the prayers contained in the Epistles, Rom_16:25-27; Eph_3:14-21; Phm_1:3-11; Col_1:9-15; Heb_13:20-21; 1Pe_5:10-11; etc., than in those recorded in the Acts. The public prayer, probably, in the first instance, took much of its form and style from the prayers of the synagogues. In the record on prayer accepted and granted by God, we observe, as always, a special adaptation to the period of his dispensation to which they belong.
In the patriarchal period, they have the simple and childlike tone of domestic application for the ordinary and apparently trivial incidents of domestic life. In the Mosaic period, they assume a more solemn tone and a national bearing, chiefly that of direct intercession for the chosen people. More rarely are they for individuals. A special class are those which precede and refer to the exercise of miraculous power. In the New , they have a more directly spiritual hearing. It would seem the intention of Holy Scripture to encourage all prayer, more especially intercession, in all relations and for all righteous objects.
Smith's Bible Dictionary
By Dr. William Smith.Published in 1863

has been well defined, the offering up of our desires unto God, for things agreeable to his will, in the name or through the mediation of Jesus Christ, by the help of the Holy Spirit, with a confession of our sins, and a thankful acknowledgment of his mercies.
1. Prayer is in itself a becoming acknowledgment of the all-sufficiency of God, and of our dependence upon him. It is his appointed means for the obtaining of both temporal and spiritual blessings. He could bless his creatures in another way: but he will be inquired of, to do for them those things of which they stand in need, Eze_36:37. It is the act of an indigent creature, seeking relief from the fountain of mercy. A sense of want excites desire, and desire is the very essence of prayer. “One thing have I desired of the Lord,” says David; “that will I seek after.” Prayer without desire is like an altar without a sacrifice, or without the fire from heaven to consume it. When all our wants are supplied, prayer will be converted into praise; till then Christians must live by prayer, and dwell at the mercy seat. God alone is able to hear and to supply their every want. The revelation which he has given of his goodness lays a foundation for our asking with confidence the blessings we need, and his ability encourages us to hope for their bestowment. “O thou that hearest prayer; unto thee shall all flesh come,” Psa_65:2.
2. Prayer is a spiritual exercise, and can only be performed acceptably by the assistance of the Holy Spirit, Rom_8:26. “The sacrifice of the wicked is an abomination to the Lord, but the prayer of the upright is his delight.” The Holy Spirit is the great agent in the world of grace, and without his special influence there is no acceptable prayer. Hence he is called the Spirit of grace and of supplication: for he it is that enables us to draw nigh unto God, filling our mouth with arguments, and teaching us to order our cause before him, Zec_12:10.
3. All acceptable prayer must be offered in faith, or a believing frame of mind. “If any man lack wisdom, let him ask of God, who giveth to all men liberally, and upbraideth not, and it shall be given him. But let him ask in faith, nothing wavering—for let not the wavering man think that he shall receive any thing of the Lord,” Jam_1:5-7. “He that cometh unto God must believe that he is, and that he is a rewarder of them that diligently seek him,” Heb_11:6. It must be offered in the name of Christ, believing in him as revealed in the word of God, placing in him all our hope of acceptance, and exercising unfeigned confidence in his atoning sacrifice and prevalent intercession.
4. Prayer is to be offered for “things agreeable to the will of God.” So the Apostle says: “This is the confidence that we have in him, that, if we ask any thing according to his will, he heareth us; and if we know that he hear us, whatsoever we ask, we know that we have the petitions that we desired of him,” 1Jn_5:14-15. Our prayers must therefore be regulated by the revealed will of God, and come within the compass of the promises. These are to be the matter and the ground of our supplications. What God has not particularly promised he may nevertheless possibly bestow; but what he has promised he will assuredly perform. Of the good things promised to Israel of old not one failed, but all came to pass; and in due time the same shall be said of all the rest.
5. All this must be accompanied with confession of our sins, and thankful acknowledgment of God's mercies. These are two necessary ingredients in acceptable prayer. “I prayed,” says the Prophet Daniel, “and made confession.” Sin is a burden, of which confession unloads the soul. “Father,” said the returning prodigal, “I have sinned against Heaven and in thy sight.” Thanksgiving is also as necessary as confession; by the one we take shame to ourselves; by the other, we give glory to God. By the one, we abase the creature; by the other we exalt the Creator. In petitioning favours from God, we act like dependent creatures; in confession, like sinners; but in thanksgiving, like angels.
The reason on which this great and efficacious duty rests, has been a subject of some debate. On this point, however, we have nothing stated in the Scriptures. From them we learn only, that God has appointed it; that he enjoins it to be offered in faith, that is, faith in Christ, whose atonement is the meritorious and procuring cause of all the blessings to which our desires can be directed; and that prayer so offered is an indispensable condition of our obtaining the blessings for which we ask. As a matter of inference, however, we may discover some glimpses of the reason in the divine Mind on which its appointment rests. That reason has sometimes been said to be the moral preparation and state of fitness produced in the soul for the reception of the divine mercies which the act and, more especially, the habit of prayer must induce. Against this stands the strong, and, in a Scriptural view, fatal objection, that an efficiency is thus ascribed to the mere act of a creature to produce those great, and, in many respects, radical changes in the character of man, which we are taught, by inspired authority, to refer to the direct influences of the Holy Spirit. What is it that fits man for forgiveness, but simply repentance? Yet that is expressly said to be the “gift” of Christ, and supposes strong operations of the illuminating and convincing Spirit of truth, the Lord and Giver of spiritual life; and if the mere acts and habit of prayer had efficiency enough to produce a Scriptural repentance, then every formalist attending with ordinary seriousness to his devotions, must, in consequence, become a penitent. Again: if we pray for spiritual blessings aright, that is, with an earnestness of desire which arises from a due apprehension of their importance, and a preference of them to all earthly good, who does not see that this implies such a deliverance from the earthly and carnal disposition which characterizes our degenerate nature, that an agency far above our own, however we may employ it, must be supposed? or else, if our own prayers could be efficient up to this point, we might, by the continual application of this instrument, complete our regeneration, independent of that grace of God, which, after all, this theory brings in. It may indeed be said, that the grace of God operates by our prayers to produce in us a state of moral fitness to receive the blessings we ask. But this gives up the point contended for, the moral efficiency of prayer; and refers the efficiency to another agent working by our prayers as an instrument. Still, however, it may be affirmed, that the Scriptures no where represent prayer as an instrument for improving our moral state, in any other way than as the means of bringing into the soul new supplies of spiritual life and strength. It is therefore more properly to be considered as a condition of our obtaining that grace by which such effects are wrought, than as the instrument by which it effects them. In fact, all genuine acts of prayer depend upon a grace previously bestowed, and from which alone the disposition and the power to pray proceed. So it was said of Saul of Tarsus, “Behold, he prayeth!” He prayed in fact then for the first time; but that was in consequence of the illumination of his mind as to his spiritual danger, effected by the miracle on the way to Damascus, and the grace of God which accompanied the miracle. Nor does the miraculous character of the means by which conviction was produced in his mind, affect the relevancy of this to ordinary cases. By whatever means God may be pleased to fasten the conviction of our spiritual danger upon our minds, and to awaken us out of the long sleep of sin, that conviction must precede real prayer, and comes from the influence of his grace, rendering the means of conviction effectual. Thus it is not the prayer which produces the conviction, but the conviction which gives birth to the prayer; and if we pursue the matter into its subsequent stages, we shall come to the same result. We pray for what we feel we want; that is, for something not in our possession; we obtain this either by impartation from God, to whom we look up as the only Being able to bestow the good for which we ask him; or else we obtain it, according to this theory, by some moral efficiency being given to the exercise of prayer to work it in us. Now, the latter hypothesis is in many cases manifestly absurd. We ask for pardon of sin, for instance; but this is an act of God done for us, quite distinct from any moral change which prayer may be said to produce in us, whatever efficiency, we may ascribe to it; for no such change in us can be pardon, since that must proceed from the party offended. We ask for increase of spiritual strength; and prayer is the expression of that want. But if it supply this want by its own moral efficiency, it must supply it in proportion to its intensity and earnestness; which intensity and earnestness can only be called forth by the degree in which the want is felt, so that the case supposed is contradictory and absurd, as it makes the sense of want to be in proportion to the supply which ought to abate or remove it. And if it be urged, that prayer at least produces in us a fitness for the supply of spiritual strength, because it is excited by a sense of our wants, the answer is, that the fitness contended for consists in that sense of want itself which must be produced in us by the previous agency of grace, or we should never pray for supplies. There is, in fact, nothing in prayer simply which appears to have any adaptation, as an instrument, to effect a moral change in man, although it should be supposed to be made use of by the influence of the Holy Spirit. The word of God is properly an instrument, because it contains the doctrine which that Spirit explains and applies, and the motives to faith and obedience which he enforces upon the conscience and affections; and although prayer brings these truths and motives before us, prayer cannot properly be said to be an instrument of our regeneration, because that which is thus brought by prayer to bear upon our case is the word of God itself introduced into our prayers, which derive their sole influence in that respect from that circumstance. Prayer simply is the application of an insufficient to a sufficient Being for the good which the former cannot otherwise obtain, and which the latter only can supply; and as that supply is dependent upon prayer, and in the nature of the thing consequent, prayer can in no good sense be said to be the instrument of supplying our wants, or fitting us for their supply, except relatively, as a mere condition appointed by the Donor.
If we must inquire into the reason of the appointment of prayer, and it can scarcely be considered as a purely arbitrary institution, that reason seems to be, the preservation in the minds of men of a solemn and impressive sense of God's agency in the world, and the dependence of all creatures upon him. Perfectly pure and glorified beings, no longer in a state of probation, and therefore exposed to no temptations, may not need this institution; but men in their fallen state are constantly prone to forget God; to rest in the agency of second causes; and to build upon a sufficiency in themselves. This is at once a denial to God of the glory which he rightly claims, and a destructive delusion to creatures, who, in forsaking God as the object of their constant affiance, trust but in broken reeds, and attempt to drink from “broken cisterns which can hold no water.” It is then equally in mercy to us, as in respect to his own honour and acknowledgment, that the divine Being has suspended so many of his blessings, and those of the highest necessity to us, upon the exercise of prayer; an act which acknowledges his uncontrollable agency; and the dependence of all creatures upon him; our insufficiency, and his fulness; and lays the foundation of that habit of gratitude and thanksgiving which is at once so meliorating to our own feelings, and so conducive to a cheerful obedience to the will of God. And if this reason for the injunction of prayer is no where in Scripture stated in so many words, it is a principle uniformly supposed as the foundation of the whole scheme of religion which they have revealed.
To this duty objections have been sometimes offered, at which it may be well at least to glance. One has been grounded upon a supposed predestination of all things which come to pass; and the argument is, that as this established predetermination of all things cannot be altered, prayer, which supposes that God will depart from it, is vain and useless. The answer which a pious predestinarian would give to this objection is, that the argument drawn from the predestination of God lies with the same force against every other human effort, as against prayer; and that as God's predetermination to give food to man does not render the cultivation of the earth useless and impertinent, so neither does the predestination of things shut out the necessity and efficacy of prayer. It would also be urged, that God has ordained the means as well as the end; and although he is an unchangeable Being, it is a part of the unchangeable system which he has established, that prayer shall be heard and accepted. Those who have not these views of predestination will answer the objection differently; for if the premises of such a predestination as is assumed by the objection, and conceded in the answer, be allowed, the answer is unsatisfactory. The Scriptures represent God, for instance, as purposing to inflict a judgment upon an individual or a nation, which purpose is often changed by prayer.
In this case either God's purpose must be denied, and then his threatenings are reduced to words without meaning; or the purpose must be allowed; in which case either prayer breaks in upon predestination, if understood absolutely, or it is vain and useless. To the objection so drawn out it is clear that no answer is given by saying that the means as well as the end are predestinated, since prayer in such cases is not a means to the end, but an instrument of thwarting it; or is a means to one end in opposition to another end, which, if equally predestinated with the same absoluteness, is a contradiction. The true answer is, that although God has absolutely predetermined some things, there are others which respect his government of free and accountable agents, which he has but conditionally predetermined. The true immutability of God consists, not in his adherence to his purposes, but in his never changing the principles of his administration; and he may therefore, in perfect accordance with his preordination of things, and the immutability of his nature, purpose to do, under certain conditions dependent upon the free agency of man, what he will not do under others; and for this reason, that an immutable adherence to the principles of a wise, just, and gracious government requires it.
Prayer is in Scripture made one of these conditions; and if God has established it as one of the principles of his moral government to accept prayer, in every case in which he has given us authority to ask, he has not, we may be assured, entangled his actual government of the world with the bonds of such an eternal predestination of particular events, as either to reduce prayer to a mere form of words, or not to be able himself, consistently with his decrees, to answer it, whenever it is encouraged by his express engagements.
A second objection is, that as God is infinitely wise and good, his wisdom and justice will lead him to bestow “whatever is fit for us without praying; and if any thing be not fit for us, we cannot obtain it by praying.” To this Dr. Paley very well replies, “that it may be agreeable to perfect wisdom to grant that to our prayers which it would not have been agreeable to the same wisdom to have given us without praying for.” This, independent of the question of the authority of the Scriptures which explicitly enjoin prayer, is the best answer which can be given to the objection; and it is no small confirmation of it, that it is obvious to every reflecting man, that for God to withhold favours till asked for, “tends,” as the same writer observes, “to encourage devotion among his rational creatures, and to keep up and circulate a knowledge and sense of their dependency upon him.”
But it is urged, “God will always do what is best from the moral perfection of his nature, whether we pray or not.” This objection, however, supposes that there is but one mode of acting for the best, and that the divine will is necessarily determined to that mode only; “both which positions,” says Paley, “presume a knowledge of universal nature, much beyond what we are capable of attaining.” It is, indeed, a very unsatisfactory mode of speaking, to say, God will always do what is best; since we can conceive him capable in all cases of doing what is still better for the creature, and also that the creature is capable of receiving more and more from his infinite fulness for ever. All that can be rationally meant by such a phrase is, that, in the circumstances of the case, God will always do what is most consistent with his own wisdom, holiness, and goodness; but then the disposition to pray, and the act of praying, add a new circumstance to every case, and often bring many other new circumstances along with them. It supposes humility, contrition, and trust, on the part of the creature; and an acknowledgment of the power and compassion of God, and of the merit of the atonement of Christ: all which are manifestly new positions, so to speak, of the circumstances of the creature, which, upon the very principle of the objection, rationally understood, must be taken into consideration.
But if the efficacy of prayer as to ourselves be granted, its influence upon the case of others is said to be more difficult to conceive. This may be allowed without at all affecting the duty. Those who bow to the authority of the Scriptures will see, that the duty of praying for ourselves and for others rests upon the same divine appointment; and to those who ask for the reason of such intercession in behalf of others, it is sufficient to reply, that the efficacy of prayer being established in one case, there is the same reason to conclude that our prayers may benefit others, as any other effort we may use. It can only be by divine appointment that one creature is made dependent upon another for any advantage, since it was doubtless in the power of the Creator to have rendered each independent of all but himself. Whatever reason, therefore, might lead him to connect and interweave the interests of one man with the benevolence of another, will be the leading reason for that kind of mutual dependence which is implied in the benefit of mutual prayer. Were it only that a previous sympathy, charity, and good will, are implied in the duty, and must, indeed, be cultivated in order to it, and be strengthened by it, the wisdom and benevolence of the institution would, it is presumed, be apparent to every well constituted mind. That all prayer for others must proceed upon a less perfect knowledge of them than we have of ourselves, is certain; that all our petitions must be, even in our own mind, more conditional than those which respect ourselves, though many of these must be subjected to the principles of a general administration, which we but partially apprehend; and that all spiritual influences upon others, when they are subject to our prayers, will be understood by us as liable to the control of their free agency, must also be conceded; and, therefore, when others are concerned, our prayers may often be partially or wholly fruitless. He who believes the Scriptures will, however, be encouraged by the declaration that “the effectual fervent prayer of a righteous man,” for his fellow creatures, “availeth much;” and he who demands something beyond mere authoritative declaration, as he cannot deny that prayer is one of those instruments by which another may be benefited, must acknowledge that, like the giving of counsel, it may be of great utility in some cases, although it should fail in others; and that as no man can tell how much good counsel may influence another, or in many cases say whether it has ultimately failed or not, so it is with prayer. It is a part of the divine plan, as revealed in his word, to give many blessings to man independent of his own prayers, leaving the subsequent improvement of them to himself. They are given in honour of the intercession of Christ, man's great “Advocate;” and they are given, subordinately, in acceptance of the prayers of Christ's church, and of righteous individuals. And when many or few devout individuals become thus the instruments of good to communities, or to whole nations, there is no greater mystery in this than in the obvious fact, that the happiness or misery of large masses of mankind is often greatly affected by the wisdom or the errors, the skill or the incompetence, the good or the bad conduct, of a few persons, and often of one.
Biblical and Theological Dictionary by Richard Watson
PRINTER 1849.

Prayer is that activity of believers whereby they communicate with God, worshipping him, praising him, thanking him, confessing to him and making requests of him. This article will be concerned mainly with those aspects of prayer connected with requests, whether personal or for others. Concerning other aspects of prayer see CONFESSION; FASTING; PRAISE; WORSHIP.
God’s power and human helplessness
Believers pray because they know that God is the source of all good, the controller of all events and the possessor of supreme power (Neh_1:4-5; Neh_9:6; Mat_6:9). By praying they acknowledge that they have no power to bring about the things they pray for, but God has. Believers are in the position of inferiors to a superior. They have no right to try to force God to do what they want, but by their prayers they are admitting their own helplessness and their complete dependence on God (Mar_9:17-24; Rom_9:20; Rom_11:33-34). They are, in effect, inviting God to work his solution to the matter concerning which they are praying.
The answer to a prayer depends not upon the will-power, zeal or emotions of the person praying, but upon the wisdom and power of God. God looks not for an effort to work up feelings, but for a humble and helpless spirit that trusts entirely in him (Psa_51:17; Pro_3:5-6; Luk_18:10-14). The merit is not in the prayer, but in God who answers the prayer. Only when believers recognize their helplessness can they really pray in the right spirit; for then they acknowledge that God can do what they cannot (Joh_15:5). Their helplessness causes them to trust in God, which means, in other words, that they exercise faith.
Faith and God’s will
Faith, therefore, is a basic requirement of all true prayer (Mat_8:13; Mar_9:23; Mar_11:24; Heb_11:6; Jam_1:6-8). People do not need large amounts of faith. All they need is enough faith to turn in their helplessness to God (Mat_21:21-22). Faith has no merit in itself, as if God needs people’s faith to help him do things. God has complete power in himself. Faith is simply the means by which believers come to God and ask him to exercise that power (Mar_11:22; Act_3:16; Act_4:24-31).
Since faith is part of the very nature of prayer, it is impossible for people to use prayer to get their own way. Those who try to use prayer in such a way are not really praying at all. They are arrogantly commanding God instead of humbly depending on him; they are wanting their will to be done instead of God’s (Mat_20:20-23; Jam_4:3).
Long and impressive prayers will not persuade God; neither will an outward show of zeal and earnestness (Mat_6:5-8; Mar_12:38-40). If believers expect to have their prayers answered, they must pray in the name of Jesus, not in their own name. That is, they must pray for what Jesus wants, not what they want. They must desire that certain things will happen for Jesus’ sake, not for their own sake. They must desire that glory be brought to God, not to themselves (Joh_14:13; Joh_16:23-24).
Answers to prayer
God promises to answer the prayers of his people, but only if they offer those prayers out of pure motives, according to his will, and with a genuine desire to glorify God (Num_14:13-20; Mat_6:10; Mat_18:19; Joh_14:13; 1Jn_5:14-15). Believers should bear in mind that they have no right of their own to come into God’s presence with their requests. They come only because Christ has made entrance into God’s presence possible and because God in his grace accepts them. They come before God humbly and reverently, but they also come confidently (Heb_4:14-16; Heb_10:19-22).
Although God’s people can pray with assurance, they have no guarantee that God will immediately give the things they pray for. In fact, he may not give them at all. The reason for this may be that he has something else in mind that will, in the end, be better for themselves, better for others and more glorifying to God. If people pray in the right spirit and with the sincere desire that God’s will be done, they are assured God will answer their prayers. In so doing he may give something different from what was requested. He gives what people would have asked for if they had the full knowledge that he has (Mat_7:7-11; Mat_26:38-46; Joh_11:32; Joh_11:37; Joh_11:40-45; 2Co_12:8-10; Eph_3:20).
If believers live righteous and godly lives, they can have confidence that God hears and answers their prayers. But disobedience, unconfessed sin and an unforgiving spirit are hindrances to prayer (Psa_66:18-19; Isa_1:15-17; Mar_11:25; Heb_5:7; Jam_5:16; 1Pe_3:12; 1Jn_3:22).
Believers are to pray with the mind as well as with the spirit (1Co_14:15; cf. Rom_12:2; Col_1:9). However, they may not always know how exactly to express their prayers or what exactly to pray for. In such cases the Spirit of Christ, who operates through them in all true prayer, presents the prayers to God on their behalf (Rom_8:26-27; Rom_8:34; Eph_6:18; Heb_7:25; 1Jn_2:1; Jud_1:20).
Matters for prayer
Prayer is an exercise for Christians collectively as well as individually. It is one of the functions of the church, particularly of the leaders of the church (Mat_18:19; Act_1:14; Act_2:42; Act_6:4; Act_12:12; Act_13:3; Act_20:36).
The Bible gives many examples of the matters believers are to pray about. In their concern for the world, they are to pray that the kingly rule of God will have its rightful place in people’s lives (Mat_6:10; Rom_10:1; 1Ti_2:1-4). They are to pray that God will send his servants into the world to bring people to know God (Mat_9:37-38), and that God will protect and guide those servants to make their work fruitful (Act_12:5; Rom_15:30-31; 2Co_1:11; Eph_6:19; Php_1:19).
Concerning the church, Christians should pray that they and their fellow believers might know God and his purposes better, be strengthened by God’s power, have unity among themselves, grow in love, develop wisdom, exercise right judgment, endure hardship with joy, and bring glory to God by lives of fruitfulness and uprightness (Joh_17:20-23; Eph_1:16-23; Eph_3:14-19; Eph_6:18; Php_1:9-11; Col_1:9-11; Col_4:12). They should pray also for the physical well-being of each other (Jam_5:16).
Believers are to pray for those who treat them unkindly (Job_42:10; Mat_5:44), and ask for mercy on those who have sinned and brought disgrace on themselves and on God (Exo_32:11-13; Exo_34:9; 1Sa_12:23). They are to pray for civil rulers, so that God’s will might be done on earth and people might live in peace (Mat_6:10; 1Ti_2:1-2).
In relation to themselves, believers should pray in times of temptation and when they have spiritual battles (Mat_6:13; Mat_26:36-46). They are to pray for God’s guidance (Luk_6:12-13; Act_1:24-25), for wisdom (Jam_1:5-8), for protection (Neh_4:8-9; Psa_57:1-3), and for the necessities of life (Deu_26:15; Mat_6:11). By prayer they can overcome anxiety (Php_4:6; 1Pe_5:6-7).
Praying always
People can engage in prayer anywhere and at any time (Gen_24:12-13; Neh_2:4; Luk_5:16; Luk_6:12; Luk_18:10; Act_10:9; 1Ti_5:5). In addition to developing the habit of speaking to God freely regardless of time or place, believers should set aside certain times when they can be alone with God and pray. Even Jesus recognized the need for set times of prayer (Dan_6:10; Mat_14:23; Mar_1:35). A person may pray in any position, such as standing or kneeling, with hands stretched out or hands lifted up, with head bowed or head uplifted (1Sa_1:26; 1Ki_8:54; 1Ki_18:42; Ezr_9:5; Luk_18:11; Luk_18:13; Joh_11:41; Eph_3:14; 1Ti_2:8).
Praying in faith does not mean that persistence in prayer is unnecessary. On the contrary faith involves perseverance. Believers do not have to beg from a God who is unwilling to give; nevertheless they pray constantly, since their prayers are an expression of their unwavering faith. They know that their heavenly Father will supply his children’s needs (Mar_14:38; Luk_11:5-13; Luk_18:1-8; Eph_6:18; Col_4:2; 1Th_1:2; 1Th_5:17).
Bridgeway Bible Dictionary by Don Fleming
PRINTER 1990.

prâr (δέησις, déēsis, προσευχή, proseuchḗ, (ἔντευξις, énteuxis; for an excellent discussion of the meaning of these see Thayer's Lexicon, p. 126, under the word δέησις, déēsis; the chief verbs are εὔχομαι, eúchomai, προσεύχομαι, proseúchomai, and δέομαι, déomai, especially in Luke and Acts; αἰτέω, aitéō, ?to ask a favor? distinguished from ἐρωτάω, erōtáō, ?to ask a question,? is found occasionally): In the Bible ?prayer? is used in a simpler and a more complex a narrower and a wider signification. In the former case it is supplication for benefits either for one's self (petition) or for others (intercession). In the latter it is an act of worship which covers all soul in its approach to God. Supplication is at the heart of it, for prayer always springs out of a sense of need and a belief that God is a rewarder of them that diligently seek Him (Heb_11:6). But adoration and confession and thanksgiving also find a It place, so that the suppliant becomes a worshipper. It is unnecessary to distinguish all the various terms for prayer that are employed in the Old Testament and the New Testament. But the fact should be noticed that in the Hebrew and Greek aloe there are on the one hand words for prayer that denote a direct petition or short, sharp cry of the heart in its distress (Psa_30:2; 2Co_12:8), and on the other ?prayers? like that of Hannah (1Sa_2:1-10), which is in reality a song of thanksgiving, or that of Paul, the prisoner of Jesus Christ, in which intercession is mingled with doxology (Eph_3:14-21).

1. In the Old Testament:
The history of prayer as it meets us here reflects various stages of experience and revelation. In the patriarchal period, when 'men began to call upon the name of the Lord' (Gen_4:26; compare Gen_12:8; Gen_21:33), prayer is naive, familiar and direct (Gen_15:2 ff; Gen_17:18; Gen_18:23 ff; Gen_24:12). It is evidently associated with sacrifice (Gen_12:8; Gen_13:4; Gen_26:25), the underlying idea probably being that the gift or offering would help to elicit the desired response. Analogous to this is Jacob's vow, itself a species of prayer, in which the granting of desired benefits becomes the condition of promised service and fidelity (Gen_28:20 ff). In the pre-exilic history of Israel prayer still retains many of the primitive features of the patriarchal type (Exo_3:4; Num_11:11-15; Jdg_6:13 ff; Jdg_11:30 f; 1Sa_1:11; 2Sa_15:8; Psa_66:13 f). The Law has remarkably little to say on the subject, differing here from the later Judaism (see Schurer, HJP, II, i, 290, index-vol, p. 93; and compare Mat_6:5 ff; Mat_23:14; Act_3:1; Act_16:13); while it confirms the association of prayer with sacrifices, which now appear, however, not as gifts in anticipation of benefits to follow, but as expiations of guilt (Deu_21:1-9) or thank offerings for past mercies (Deu_26:1-11). Moreover, the free, frank access of the private individual to God is more and more giving place to the mediation of the priest (Deu_21:5; Deu_26:3), the intercession of the prophet (Exo_32:11-13; 1Sa_7:5-13; 1Sa_12:23), the ordered approach of tabernacle and temple services (Ex 40; 1 Ki 8). The prophet, it is true, approaches God immediately and freely - Moses (Exo_34:34; Deu_34:10) and David (2Sa_7:27) are to be numbered among the prophets - but he does so in virtue of his office, and on the ground especially of his possession of the Spirit and his intercessory function (compare Eze_2:2; Jer_14:15).
A new epoch in the history of prayer in Israel was brought about by the experiences of the Exile. Chastisement drove the nation to seek God more earnestly than before, and as the way of approach through the external forms of the temple and its sacrifices was now closed, the spiritual path of prayer was frequented with a new assiduity. The devotional habits of Ezra (Ezr_7:27; Ezr_8:23), Nehemlab (Neh_2:4; Neh_4:4, Neh_4:9, etc.) and Daniel (Dan_6:10) prove how large a place prayer came to hold in the individual life; while the utterances recorded in Ezr_9:6-15; Neh_1:5-11; 9:5-38; Dan 9:4-19; Isa 63:7 through 64:12 serve as illustrations of the language and spirit of the prayers of the Exile, and show especially the prominence now given to confession of sin. In any survey of the Old Testament teaching the Psalms occupy a place by themselves, both on account of the large period they cover in the history and because we are ignorant in most cases as to the particular circumstances of their origin. But speaking generally it may be said that here we see the loftiest flights attained by the spirit of prayer under the old dispensation - the intensest craving for pardon, purity and other spiritual blessings (Ps 51; Psa_130:1-8), the most heartfelt longing for a living communion with God Himself (Psa_42:2; Psa_63:1; Psa_84:2).

2. In the New Testament:
Here it will be convenient to deal separately with the material furnished by the Gospel narratives of the life and teaching of Christ and that found in the remaining books. The distinctively Christian view of prayer comes to us from the Christ of the Gospels. We have to notice His own habits in the matter (Luk_3:21; Luk_6:12; Luk_9:16, Luk_9:29; Luk_22:32, Luk_22:39-46; Luk_23:34-46; Mat_27:46; Jn 17), which for all who accept Him as the revealer of the Father and the final authority in religion immediately dissipate all theoretical objections to the value and efficacy of prayer. Next we have His general teaching on the subject in parables (Luk_11:5-9; Luk_18:1-14) and incidental sayings (Mat_5:44; Mat_6:5-8; Mat_7:7-11; Mat_9:38; Mat_17:21; Mat_18:19; Mat_21:22; Mat_24:20; Mat_26:41 and the parallels), which presents prayer, not as a mere energizing of the religious soul that is followed by beneficial spiritual reactions, but as the request of a child to a father (Mat_6:8; Mat_7:11), subject, indeed, to the father's will (Mat_7:11; compare Mat_6:10; Mat_26:39, Mat_26:42; 1Jo_5:14), but secure always of loving attention and response (Mat_7:7-11; Mat_21:22). In thus teaching us to approach God as our Father, Jesus raised prayer to its highest plane, making it not less reverent than it was at its best in Old Testament times, while far more intimate and trustful. In the &LORD'S PRAYER (which see). He summed up His ordinary teaching on the subject in a concrete example which serves as a model and breviary of prayer (Mat_6:9-13; Luk_11:2-4). But according to the Fourth Gospel, this was not His final word upon the subject. On the night of the betrayal, and in full view of His death and resurrection and ascension to God's right hand, He told His disciples that prayer was henceforth to be addressed to the Father in the name of the Son, and that prayer thus offered was sure to be granted (Joh_16:23, Joh_16:24, Joh_16:26). The differentia of Christian prayer thus consists in its being offered in the name of Christ; while the secret of its success lies on the one hand in the new access to the Father which Christ has secured for His people (Joh_17:19; compare Heb_4:14-16; Heb_10:19-22), and on the other in the fact that prayer offered in the name of Christ will be prayer in harmony with the Father's will (Joh_15:7; compare 1Jo_3:22 f; 1Jo_5:13 f).
In the Acts and Epistles we see the apostolic church giving effect to Christ's teaching on prayer. It was in a praying atmosphere that the church was born (Act_1:14; compare Act_2:1); and throughout its early history prayer continued to be its vital breath and native air (Act_2:42; Act_3:1; Act_6:4, Act_6:6 and passim). The Epistles abound in references to prayer. Those of Paul in particular contain frequent allusions to his own personal practice in the matter (Rom_1:9; Eph_1:16; Phi_1:9; 1Th_1:2, etc.), and many exhortations to his readers to cultivate the praying habit (Rom_12:12; Eph_6:18; Phi_4:6; 1Th_5:17, etc.). But the new and characteristic thing about Christian prayer as it meets us now is its connection with the Spirit. It has become a spiritual gift (1Co_14:14-16); and even those who have not this gift in the exceptional charismatic sense may ?pray in the Spirit? whenever they come to the throne of grace (Eph_6:18; Jud_1:20). The gift of the Spirit, promised by Christ (Joh_14:16 ff, etc.), has raised prayer to its highest power by securing for it a divine cooperation (Rom_8:15, Rom_8:26; Gal_4:6). Thus Christian prayer in its full New Testament meaning is prayer addressed to God as Father, in the name of Christ as Mediator, and through the enabling grace of the indwelling Spirit. See PRAYERS OF JESUS.

International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
PRINTER 1915.

Prayer
The words generally used in the O.T. are תְּחַנָּה, tchinnah (from the root
חָנִן, “to incline,” “to be gracious,” whence in Hithp. “to entreat grace or mercy;” Sept. generally, δέησις; Vulg. deprecatio), and ‘ תְּפַלָּה, tephillah (from the root פָּלִל, “to judge,” whence in Hithp. “to seek judgment;” Sept. προσευχή; Vulg. oratio). The latter is also used to express intercessory prayer. The two words point to the two chief objects sought in prayer, viz. the prevalence of right and truth, and the gift of mercy. A very frequent formula for prayer in the O.T. is the phrase יְהוָֹה
קָרָא בְשֵׁם,. to call upon the name of Jehovah. The usual Greek term is εὔχομαι, which originally signified only a wish; but δέομαι, to beg (properly to want), is a frequent expression for prayer.
I. Scriptural History of the Subject. —
1. That prayer was coeval with the fallen race we cannot doubt, and it was in all probability associated with the first sacrifice. The first definite account of its public observance occurs in the remarkable expression recorded in the lifetime of Enos, the son of Seth: “Then began men to call upon the name of the Lord” (Gen_4:26). From that time a life of prayer evidently marked the distinction between the pious and the wicked. The habit was maintained in the chosen family of Abraham, as is evident from frequent instances in the history of the Hebrew patriarchs. Moses, however, gave no specific commands with reference to this part of religious service (comp. Spanheim, Ad Callimach. Pallad. p. 139; Creuzer, Symbol. 1, 164 sq.), and prayer was not by law interwoven with the public worship of God among the Hebrews (but comp. Deu_26:10; Deu_26:13, and the prayer of atonement offered by the high-priest, Lev_16:21).
We do not know whether, before the exile, prayer was customarily joined with sacrificial offerings (Iliad, 1, 450 sq.; Odys. 14:423; Lucian, Dea Syr. 57; Curtius, 4:13, 15; Pliny, H. N. 28, 3; see Iamblich, Myster. 5, 26). Yet, at least in morning and evening worship, those present perhaps joined in prayer, either silently or with united voices (see Luk_1:10). About the time of the exile our records begin of the custom of the Levites reciting prayers and leading others (1Ch_23:30; comp. Neh_11:17; Berach. 26, 1; see Otho, Lex. Rab. p. 164). An extraordinary instance of public prayer occurs in 1Ki_8:22. We see that prayer as a religious exercise, in the outer court of the sanctuary, though not expressly commanded, was yet supposed and expected. (Psa_141:2; Rev_8:3-4, seem to indicate that incense was a symbol of prayer; but see Baihr, Symbolik, 1, 461 sq.) As private devotion prayer was always in general use (comp. Isa_1:15; Credner, On Joel, p. 192, supposes from Joe_2:16, and Mat_18:3; Mat_19:14; Psa_8:3, that especial virtue was ascribed to the prayers of innocent children; but without ground). After the time of the exile prayer came gradually to be viewed as a meritorious work, an opus operatun. Prayer and fasting were considered the two great divisions of personal piety (Tob_12:9; Jdt_4:12). It was customary to offer prayer before every great undertaking (Jdt_13:7; comp. Act_9:40; Iliad, 9:172; 24, 308; Pythag. Carmen Aur. 48); as in war before a battle (1Ma_5:33; 1Ma_11:71; 2Ma_15:26; comp. 1Ma_8:29). Three times a day was prayer repeated (Dan_6:11; comp. Psalm 4:18; Tanchaum, 9, 4, in Schöttgen, Hor. Hebr. 1, 419): namely, at the third hour (9 A.M., Act_2:15, the time of the morning sacrifice in the Temple); at mid-day, the sixth hour (12 M., 10:9); and in the afternoon, at the ninth hour (3 P.M., the time of the evening sacrifice in the Temple; comp. Dan_9:21; Josephus, Ant. 14:4, 3; see also Acts 3, 1; Act_10:30; Thilo, Apocr. 1, 352; Schöttgen, Op. cit. p. 418 sq.; Wetstein, 2, 471). Compare the three or four fold repetition of songs of praise by the Egyptian priests each day (Porphyr. Abstin. 4, 8). The Moharnmedans, too, are well known to have daily hours of prayer. It was usual, too, before and after eating to utter a form of prayer or thanks (Mat_15:36; Joh_6:11; Act_27:35; Philo, Opp. 2, 481; Porphyr. Abstinen. 4, 12; see Kuinol, De precum ante et post cibum up. Judeos et Christ. faciendarum genere, antiquitate, etc. [Lips. 1764]). The Pharisees and Essenes especially ascribed great importance to prayer. The former, indeed, made a display of this form of devotion (Mat_6:5), and humored their own conceit by making their prayers very long. SEE PHARISEE.
Permanent forms of prayer were already customary in the time of Christ (Luk_11:1), perhaps chiefly the same which are contained in the Mishna, Berachoth (comp. Pirke Aboth, 2, 13). The Lord's Prayer, too, has several, though not very important, agreements with the forms in the Talmud (see Schöttgen, 1, 160 sq.; Vitringa, De Synag. Vet. p. 962; Otho, Lex. Rab. p. 539; Tholuck, Berypredigt, p. 337 sq.). Private prayer was practiced by the Israelites chiefly in retired chambers in their houses (Mat_6:6), especially in the “upper room” (Dan_6:11; Jdt_8:5; Tobit 3, 12; Acts 1, 13; Act_10:9), and on the roof. If in the open air, an eminence was sought for (Mat_14:23; Mar_6:46; Luk_6:12; comp. 1Ki_18:42). The inhabitants of Jerusalem were fondest of going to the court of the Temple (Luk_18:10; Act_3:1; comp. Isa_56:7; see Arnob. Adv. Gent. 6, 4; Lakealacher, Antiq. Gr. Sacr. p. 425). He, however, who was surprised by the hour of prayer in the street stood there and said his prayer on the spot. In every case the face was turned towards the holy hill of the Temple (Dan_6:11; 2Ch_6:34; 2 Chronicles 3 Esdr. 4:58; Mishna, Berach. 4, 5), hut by the Samaritans to Gerizim. In the court of the Temple the face was turned to the Temple itself (1Ki_8:38), to the Holy of Holies (Psalms 5, 8; see Thilo, Apocr. 1, 20). Thus the Jews praying then faced the west, while the modern Jews in Europe and America face the east in prayer. It was an early custom among Christians, too, to turn the face towards the east in praying (Origen, Hosea 2 n. 5, in Num., in Op. 2, 284; Clem. Alex. Strom. 7, 724; comp. Tertul. Apol. 16).
The Mohammedans turn the face towards Mecca (Rosenmüller, Morgenl. 4, 361). The usual posture in prayer was standing (1 Samuel 1, 26; 1Ki_8:22; Dan_9:20; Mat_6:5; Mar_11:25; Luk_18:11 comp. Iliad, 24:306 sq.; Martial, 12:77, 2; Al Koran, 5, 8; Mishna, Berach. 5, 1; Philo. Opp. 2, 481; Wetstein, 1, 321). But in earnest devotion, bending the knee, or actual kneeling, was practiced (2Ch_6:13; 1Ki_8:54; Esdr. 9:5; Dan_6:10; Luk_22:41; Act_9:40), or the body was even thrown to the ground (Gen_24:26; Neh_8:6; Jdt_9:1; Mat_26:39). The hands before prayer must be made clean. Says the Mishna, He that prays with unclean hands commits deadly sin (Sohar Deuteronomy f. 101, 427; comp. 1Ti_2:8; Odys. 2, 261; Clem. Alex. Strom. 4, 531; Chrysost. Hona. 43, in 1 Corinthians). The hands were then, in standing, often lifted up towards heaven (1Ki_8:22; Neh_8:7; Lamentations 2, 19; 3, 41; Psa_28:2; Psa_134:2; 2 Macc. 3, 20; 1 Timothy 2, 8; Philo, Opp. 2. 481, 534; Iliad, 1, 450; Virgil, En. 1, 93; Horace, Od. 3, 23, 1; Plutarch, Alex. p. 682; Aristotle, Mund. 6; Seneca, Ep. 41; Wetstein, 2, 323; Doughtoei Analect. 2 135); sometimes were spread out (Isa_1:15; Ezr_9:5); and in humble prayers of penitence were laid meekly on the breast, or sometimes the breast was struck with them (Luk_18:13). A posture peculiar to prayer was dropping the head upon the breast (Psa_35:13), or between the knees (1Ki_18:42). This was done in great sorrow. The former is still customary among the Mohammedans (see the figs. in Reland's De Relig. Muh. p. 87). SEE ATTITUDES.
Extensive treatises on the kinds of prayer, and their order andrconduct, are given in the Mishna (treatise Berachoth) and the double Gemara (in German by Rabe [Halle, 1777]; see also Otho, Lex. Rab. p. 537 sq.). One species of prayer was intercession. Almost infallible virtue was ascribed to it when offered by a holy person (see James 5, 16; comp. Diod. Sic. 4, 61; Apollod. 3, 12, 6; Gen_20:7; Gen_20:17; Exo_32:11 sq.; 1Ki_17:20 sq.; Josephus, Ant. 14, 2, 1; 2Co_1:11; 1 Timothy 2, 1 sq.; Php_1:19). Hence it was common to request the prayers of others (1 Thessalonians 5, 25; 2 Thessalonians 3, 1; Heb_13:18; comp. Deyling, Observ. 2, 587 sq.). See Jonath. On Gen_26:27; and esp. Suicer, Observ. Sacr. p. 149 sq.; Schroder, Diss. de Precib. Hebrseorum [Marb. 1717]; Saubert, De Precibuts Heb.; and Poleman, De situ praecandi vet. Heb., both in Ugolini Thesaur. vol. 21; Carpzov, Appar. p. 322 sq.; Baur, Gottesd. Veuf. 1, 357 sq.; Rehm, Historia Precum Biblica (Götting. 1814); Hartmann, Verbind. d. A. u. N.T. p. 236 sq., 286 sq.; and on the whole subject, Brover, de Niedek, De populor. vet. et recent. Adorationib. (Amsterd. 1713). The Homeric prayers are treated in Naegelsbach's Homer. Theol. p. 185 sq. SEE PROSEUCHE; SEE SYNAGOGUE.
2. The only form of prayer given for perpetual use in the O.T. is the one in Denlt. 26, 5-15, connected with the offering of tithes and first-fruits, and containing in simple form the important elements of prayer. acknowledgment of God's mercy, self-dedication, and prayer for future blessing. To this may perhaps be added the threefold blessing of Num_6:24-26, couched as it is in a precatory form; and the short prayers of Moses (Num_10:35-36) at the moving and resting of the cloud, the former of which was the germ of the 68th Psalm.
Indeed, the forms given, evidently with a view to preservation and constant use, are rather hymns or songs than prayers properly so called, although they often contain supplication. Scattered through the historical books we have the Song of Moses taught to the children of Israel (Deu_32:1-43); his less important songs after the passage of the Red Sea (Exo_15:1-19) and at the springing out of the water (Num_21:17-18); the Song of Deborah and Barak (Judges 5); the Song of Hannah in 1Sa_2:1-10 (the effect of which is seen by reference to the Magnificat); and the Song of David (Psalms 18), singled out in 2 Samuel 22. But after David's time the existence and use of the Psalms, and the poetical form of the prophetic books, and of the prayers which they contain, must have tended to fix this psalmic character on all Jewish prayer. The effect is seen plainly in the form of Hezekiah's prayers in 2Ki_19:15-19; Isa_38:9-20.
But of the prayers recorded in the O.T. the two most remarkable are those of Solomon at the dedication of the Temple (1Ki_8:23-53) and of Joshua the high-priest and his colleagues after the captivity (Neh_9:5-38). The former is a prayer for God's presence with his people in time of national defeat (Neh_9:33-34), famine or pestilence (Neh_9:35-37), war (Nehemiah 9:44, 45), and captivity (Nehemiah 9:46-50), and with each individual Jew and stranger (Nehemiah 9:41-43) who may worship in the Temple. The latter contains a recital of all God's blessings to the children of Israel from Abraham to the captivity, a confession of their continual sins, and a fresh dedication of themselves to the covenant. It is clear that both are likely to have exercised a strong liturgical influence, and accordingly we find that the public prayer in the Temple, already referred to, had in our Lord's time grown into a kind of liturgy. Before and during the sacrifice there was a prayer that God would put it into their hearts to love and fear him; then a repeating of the Ten Commandments, and of the passages written on their phylacteries. SEE FRONTLETS; next, three or four prayers and ascriptions of glory to God; and the blessing from Num_6:24-26, “The Lord bless thee,” etc., closed this service. Afterwards, at the offering of the meat-offering, there followed the singing of psalms, regularly fixed for each day of the week, or specially appointed for the great festivals (see Bingham, bk. 13:ch. 5, § 4). A somewhat similar liturgy formed a regular part of the synagogue worship, in which there was a regular minister, as the leader of prayer (שְׁלַיח הִצַּבּוּר, legatus ecclesiae), and public prayer, as well as private, was the special object of the Proseuchie. It appears, also, from the question of the disciples in Luk_11:1, and from Jewish tradition, that the chief teachers of the day gave special forms of prayer to their disciples, as the badge of their discipleship and the best fruits of their learning. SEE FORMS OF PRAYER.
All Christian prayer is, of course, based on the Lord's Prayer; but its spirit is also guided by that of his prayer in Gethsemane, and of the prayer recorded by St. John (John 17), the beginning of his great work of intercession. The first is the comprehensive type of the simplest and most universal prayer; the second justifies prayers for special blessings of this life, while it limits them by perfect resignation to God's will; the last, dwelling as it does on the knowledge and glorification of God, and the communion of man with him, as the one object of prayer and life, is the type of the highest and most spiritual devotion. The Lord's Prayer has given the form and tone of all ordinary Christian prayer; it has fixed, as its leading principles, simplicity and confidence in our Father, community of sympathy with all men, and practical reference to our own life; it has shown, as its true objects, first the glory of God, and next the needs of man. To the intercessory prayer we may trace up its transcendental element, its desire of that communion through love with the nature of God which is the secret of all individual holiness and of all community with men.
The influence of these prayers is more distinctly traced in the prayers contained in the Epistles (see Eph_3:14-21; Rom_16:25-27; Php_1:3-11; Col_1:9-15; Heb_13:20-21; 1Pe_5:10-11, etc.) than in those recorded in the Acts. The public prayer, which from the beginning became the principle of life and unity in the Church (see Act_2:42; and comp. Act_1:24-25; Act_4:24-30; Act_6:6; Act_12:5; Act_13:2-3; Act_16:25; Act_20:36; Act_21:5), probably in the first instance took much of its form and style from the prayers of the synagogues. The only form given (besides the very short one of Act_1:24-25), dwelling as it does (Act_4:24-30) on the Scriptures of the O.T. in their application to our Lord, seems to mark this connection. It was probably by degrees that they assumed the distinctively Christian character.
3. In the record of prayers accepted and granted by God, we observe, as always. a special adaptation to the period of his dispensation to which they belong. In the patriarchal period they have the simple and childlike tone of domestic supplication for the simple and apparently trivial incidents of domestic life. Such are the prayers of Abraham for children (Gen_15:2-3); for Ishmael (Gen_15:17-18); of Isaac for Rebekah (Gen_25:21); of Abraham's servant in Mesopotamia (Gen_24:12-14); although sometimes they take a wider range in intercession, as with Abraham for Sodom (Gen_18:23-32), and for Abimelech (Gen_18:20; Gen_18:7; Gen_18:17). In the Mosaic period they assume a more solemn tone and a national bearing, chiefly that of direct intercession for the chosen people, as by Moses (Num_11:2; Num_12:13; Num_21:7); by Samuel (1Sa_7:5; 1Sa_12:19; 1Sa_12:23); by David (2Sa_24:17-18); by Hezekiah (2Ki_19:15-19); by Isaiah (2Ki_19:4; 2Ch_32:20); by Daniel (Dan_9:20-21): or of prayer for national victory, as by Asa (2Ch_14:11); Jehoshaphat (2Ch_20:6-12), More rarely are they for individuals, as in the prayer of Hannah (1Sa_1:12); in that of Hezekiah in his sickness (2Ki_20:2); the intercession of Samuel for Saul (1Sa_15:11; 1Sa_15:35), etc. A special class are those which precede and refer to the exercise of miraculous power, as by Moses (Exo_8:12; Exo_8:30; Exo_15:25); by Elijah at Zarephath (1Ki_17:20) and Carmel (1Ki_18:36-37); by Elisha at Shunem (2Ki_4:33) and Dothan (2Ki_6:17-18); by Isaiah (2Ki_20:11); by St. Peter for Tabitha (Act_9:40); by the elders of the Church (Jam_5:14-16). In the New Testament they have a more directly spiritual bearing, such as the prayer of the Church for protection and grace (Act_4:24-30); of the Apostles for their Samaritan converts (Act_8:15); of Cornelius for guidance (Act_10:4; Act_10:31); of the Church of St. Peter (Act_12:5); of St. Paul at Philippi (Act_16:25); of St. Paul against the thorn in the flesh answered, although not granted (2Co_12:7-9), etc. It would seem the intention of Holy Scripture to encourage all prayer, more especially intercession, in all relations and for all righteous objects. SEE PRAYER.
II. Christian Doctrine on the Subject. —
1. Prayer is a request or petition for mercies; or it is “an offering-up of our desires to God, for things agreeable to his will, il the name of Christ, by the help of his Spirit, with confession of our sins, and thankful acknowledgment of his mercies.” Nothing can be more rational or consistent than the exercise of this duty. It is a divine injunction that men should always pray, and not faint (Luk_18:1). It is highly proper we should acknowledge the obligations we are under to the Divine Being, and supplicate his throne for the blessings we stand in need of. It is essential to our peace and felicity, and is the happy means of our carrying on and enjoying fellowship with God. It has an influence on our tempers and conduct, and evinces our subjection and obedience to God.
2. The object of prayer is God alone, through Jesus Christ as the Mediator. All supplications, therefore, to saints or angels are not only useless, but blasphemous. All worship of the creature, however exalted that creature is, is idolatry, and is strictly prohibited in the sacred law of God. Nor are we to pray to the Trinity as three distinct Gods; for though the Father. Son, and Holy Ghost be addressed in various parts of the Scripture (2Co_13:14; 2Th_2:16-17), yet never as three Gods, for that would lead us directly to the doctrine of polytheism: the more ordinary mode the Scripture points out is to address the Father through the Son, depending on the Spirit to help our infirmities (Eph_2:18; Rom_8:26).
3. As to the nature of this duty, it must be observed that it does not consist in the elevation of the voice, the posture of the body, the use of a form, or the mere extemporary use of words, nor, properly speaking, in anything of an exterior nature; but simply the offering up of our desires to God (Mat_15:8). (See the definition above.) It has generally been divided into adoration, by which we express our sense of the goodness and greatness of God (Dan_4:34-35); confession, by which we acknowledge our unworthiness (1 John 1, 9); supplication, by which we pray for pardon, grace, or any blessing we want (Mat_7:7); intercession, by which we pray for others (James 5, 16); and thanksgiving, by which we express our gratitude to God (Php_4:6). To these some add invocation, a making mention of one or more of the names of God; pleading, arguing our case with God in a humble and fervent manner; dedication, or surrendering ourselves to God; deprecation, by which we desire that evils may be averted; blessing, in which we express our joy in God, and gratitude for his mercies; but as all these appear to be included in the first five parts of prayer, they need not be insisted on.
4. The different kinds of prayer are,
(1.) Ejaculatory, by which the mind is directed to God on any emergency. It is derived from the word ejaculor, to dart or shoot out suddenly, and is therefore appropriated to describe this kind of prayer, which is made up of short sentences, spontaneously springing from the mind. The Scriptures afford us many instances of ejaculatory prayer (Exo_14:15; 1 Samuel 1, 13; Rom_7:24-25; Gen_43:29, Jdg_16:28; Luk_23:42-43). It is one of the principal excellences of this kind of prayer that it can be practiced at all times, and in all places; in the public ordinances of religion; in all our ordinary and extraordinary undertakings; in times of affliction, temptation, and danger; in seasons of social intercourse; in worldly business; in traveling; in sickness and pain. In fact, everything around us, and every event that transpires, may afford us matter for ejaculation. It is worthy, therefore, of our practice, especially when we consider that it is a species of devotion that can receive no impediment from any external circumstances, that it has a tendency to support the mind, and keep it in a happy frame; fortifies us against the temptations of the world; elevates our affections to God; directs the mind into a spiritual channel; and has a tendency to excite trust and dependence on Divine Providence.
(2.) Secret or closet prayer is another kind of prayer to which we should attend. It has its name from the manner in which Christ recommended it (Mat_6:6). He himself set us an example of it (Luk_6:12); and it has been the practice of the saints in every age (Genesis 28:32; Dan_6:10; Act_10:9). There are some particular occasions when this duty may be practiced to advantage, as when we are entering into any important situation; undertaking anything of consequence; before we go into the world; when calamities surround us (Isa_26:20); or when ease and prosperity attend us. As closet prayer is calculated to inspire us with peace, defend us from our spiritual enemies, excite us to obedience, and promote our real happiness, we should be watchful lest the stupidity of our frame, the intrusion of company, the cares of the world, the insinuations of Satan, or the indulgence of sensual objects, prevent us from the constant exercise of this necessary and important duty.
(3.) Family prayer is also another part not to be neglected. It is true there is no absolute command for this in God's Word; yet, from hints, allusions, and examples we may learn that it was the practice of ancient saints— Abraham (Gen_18:19), David (2Sa_6:20), Solomon (Pro_22:6), Job (Job_1:4-5), Joshua (Jos_24:15). (See also Eph_6:4; Pro_6:20; Jer_10:25; Act_10:2; Act_10:30; Act_16:15.) Family prayer, indeed, may not be essential to the character of a true Christian, but it is surely no honor to heads of families to have it said that they have no religion in their houses. If we consider what a blessing it is likely to prove to our children and our domestics; what comfort it must afford to ourselves; of what utility it may prove to the community at large; how it sanctifies domestic comforts and crosses; and what a tendency it has to promote order, decency, sobriety, and religion in general, we must at once see the propriety of attending to it. The objection often made to family prayer is want of time; but this is a very frivolous excuse, since the time allotted for this purpose need be but short, and may easily be redeemed from sleep or business. Others say they have no gifts; where this is the case, a form may soon be procured and used, but it should be remembered that gifts increase by exercise, and no man can properly decide unless he make repeated trials. Others are deterred through shame, or the fear of man: in answer to such, we refer them to the declarations of our Lord (Mat_10:37-38; Mar_8:38). As to the season for family prayer, every family must determine for itself; but before breakfast every morning, and before supper at night, seems most proper: perhaps a quarter of an hour or twenty minutes may be sufficient as to the time.
(4.) Social prayer is another kind Christians are called upon to attend to. It is denominated social because it is offered by a society of Christians in their collective capacity, convened for that particular purpose, either on some peculiar and extraordinary occasions, or at stated and regular seasons. Special prayer-meetings are such as are held at the meeting and parting of intimate friends, especially churches and ministers: when the Church is in a state of unusual deadness and barrenness; when ministers are sick, or taken away by death; in times of public calamity and distress, etc. Stated meetings for social prayer are such as are held weekly in some places which have a special regard to the state of the nation and churches; missionary prayer meetings for the spread of the Gospel; weekly meetings held in most of the congregations, which have a more particular reference to their own churches, ministers, the sick, feeble, and weak of the flock. Christians are greatly encouraged to this kind of prayer from the consideration of the promise (Mat_18:20), the benefit of mutual supplications, from the example of the most eminent primitive saints (Mal_3:16; Act_12:12), the answers given to prayer (Act_12:1-12; Joshua 10; Isaiah 37 :etc.), and the signal blessing they are to the churches (Php_1:19; 2Co_1:11). These meetings should be attended with regularity; those who engage should study simplicity, brevity, Scripture language, seriousness of spirit, and everything that has a tendency to edification. We now come, lastly, to take notice of public prayer, or that in which the whole congregation is engaged, either in repeating a set form or acquiescing with the prayer of the minister who leads their devotions. This is both an ancient and important part of religious exercise; it was a part of the patriarchal worship (Genesis 4:56); it was also carried on by the Jews (Exo_29:43; Luk_1:10). It was a part of the Temple-service (Isa_56:7; 1Ki_8:59). Jesus Christ recommended it both by his example and instruction (Mat_18:20; Luk_4:16). The disciples also attended to it (Act_2:41-42), and the Scriptures in many places countenance it (Exo_20:24; Psa_63:1-2; Psa_84:11; Psa_27:4). See Wilkins, Henry, Watts, On Prayer; Townsend, Nine Sermons on Prayer; Paley, Moral Philosophy, 2, 31; Mather, Student and Pastor, p. 87; Wollaston, Religion of Nature, p. 122, 123; Hannah More, On Education, vol. 2, ch. 1; Barrow, Works, vol. 1, ser. 6; Smith, System of Prayer; Scamp, Sermon on Family Religion; Walford, On Prayer. SEE WORSHIP.
III. Philosophical Diffculties. —
1. Scripture does not give any theoretical explanation of the mystery which attaches to prayer. The difficulty of understanding its real efficacy arises chiefly from two sources: from the belief that mall lives under general laws, which in all cases must be fulfilled unalterably; and the opposing belief that he is master of his own destiny, and need pray for no external blessing. The first difficulty is even increased when we substitute the belief in a personal God for the sense of an impersonal destiny; since not only does the predestination of God seem to render prayer useless, but his wisdom and love, giving freely to man all that is good for him, appear to make it needless.
The difficulty is familiar to all philosophy, the former element being far the more important: the logical inference from it is the belief in the absolute uselessness of prayer. But the universal instinct of prayer, being too strong for such reasoning, generally exacted as a compromise the use of prayer for good in the abstract (the “mens sana in corpora sano”); a compromise theoretically liable to the same difficulties, but wholesome in its practical effect. A far more dangerous compromise was that adopted by some philosophers, rather than by mankind at large, which separated internal spiritual growth from the external circumstances that give scope thereto, and claimed the former as belonging entirely to man, while allowing the latter to be gifts of the gods, and therefore to be fit objects of prayer.
The most obvious escape from these difficulties is to fall back on the mere subjective effect of prayer, and to suppose that its only object is to produce on the mind that consciousness of dependence which leads to faith, and that sense of God's protection and mercy which fosters love. These being the conditions of receiving, or at least of rightly entering into, God's blessings, it is thought that in its encouragement of them the entire use and efficacy of prayer consist.
Now, Scripture, while, by the doctrine of spiritual influence, it entirely disposes of the latter difficulty, does not so entirely solve that part of the mystery which depends on the nature of God. It places it clearly before us, and emphasizes most strongly those doctrines on which the difficulty turns. The reference of all events and actions to the will or permission of God, and of all blessings to his free grace, is indeed the leading idea of all its parts, historical, prophetic, and doctrinal; and this general idea is expressly dwelt upon in its application to the subject of prayer. The principle that our “Heavenly Father knoweth what things we have need of before we ask him” is not only enunciated in plain terms by our Lord, but is at all times implied in the very form and nature of all Scriptural prayers; and, moreover, the ignorance of man, who “knows not what to pray for as he ought,” and his consequent need of the divine guidance in prayer, are dwelt upon with equal earnestness. Yet, while this is so, on the other hand the instinct of prayer is solemnly sanctioned and enforced in every page. Not only is its subjective effect asserted, but its real objective efficacy, as a means appointed by God for obtaining blessing, is both implied and expressed in the plainest terms. As we are bidden to pray for general spiritual blessings-in which instance it might seem as if prayer were simply a means of preparing the heart, and so making it capable of receiving them- so also are we encouraged to ask special blessings, both spiritual and temporal, in hope that thus (and thus only) we may obtain them, and to use intercession for others, equally special and confident, in trust that an effect, which in this case cannot possibly be subjective to ourselves, will be granted to our prayers: The command is enforced by direct promises, such as that in the Sermon on the Mount (Mat_7:7-8), of the clearest and most comprehensive character; by the example of all saints and of our Lord himself; and by historical records of such effect as granted to prayer again and again.
Thus, as usual in the case of such mysteries, the two apparently opposite truths are emphasized, because they are needful to man's conception of his relation to God; their reconcilement is not, perhaps cannot be, fully revealed; for, in fact, it is involved in that inscrutable mystery which attends the conception of any free action of man as necessary for the working out of the general laws of God's unchangeable will.
At the same time it is clearly implied that such a reconcilement exists, and that all the apparently isolated and independent exertions of man's spirit in prayer are in some way perfectly subordinated to the one supreme will of God, so as to form a part of his scheme of providence. This follows from the condition, expressed or understood in every prayer, “Not my will, but thine be done.” It is seen in the distinction between the granting of our petitions (which is not absolutely promised) and the certain answer of blessing to all faithful prayer; a distinction exemplified in the case of Paul's prayer against the “thorn in the flesh,” and of our Lord's own agony in Gethsemane. It is distinctly enunciated by John (1Jn_5:14-15): “If we ask anything according to his will, he heareth us; and if we know that he hear us, whatsoever we ask, we know that we have the petitions that we desired of him.”
It is also implied that the key to the mystery lies in the fact of man's spiritual unity with God in Christ, and of the consequent gift of the Holy Spirit. All true and prevailing prayer is to be offered “in the name of Christ” (Joh_14:13; Joh_15:16; Joh_16:23-27), that is, not only for the sake of his atonement, but also in dependence on his intercession; which is therefore as a central influence, acting on all prayers offered, to throw off whatever in them is evil, and give efficacy to all that is in accordance with the divine will. So also is it said of the spiritual influence of the Holy Ghost oil each individual mind, that while “we know not what to pray for,” the indwelling “Spirit makes intercession for the saints, according to the will of God” (Rom_8:26-27). Here, as probably in all other cases, the action of the Holy Spirit on the soul is to free agents what the laws of nature are to things inanimate, and is the power which harmonizes free individual action with the universal will of God. The mystery of prayer, therefore, like all others, is seen to be resolved into that great central mystery of the Gospel, the communion of man with God in the incarnation of Christ. Beyond this we cannot go. SEE PROVIDENCE.
2. The discussion provoked by Prof. Tyndall's so-called “Prayer-test” (q.v.) has given a fresh interest to the question, How far are we entitled to expect the divine interference with the ordinary course of nature in answer to prayer? The question practically resolves itself into another and simpler one, Have miracles ceased in the present age of the Church? This latter is properly a question of fact; and it is very generally answered in the affirmative. The modern instances of miracle working are too few and uncertain to warrant any other conclusion. All those who of late years have come forward with claims to the power have sooner or later proved themselves miserable pretenders, and hence the world has justly abandoned all hope in this direction. Whether the power of working miracles was intended to be only a temporary grant to the apostolic age, and whether therefore it need have been lost out of the Church, is an entirely different question. For aught we can see, there is no limit set in the N.T. for its possession and exercise, save the implied one of its necessity; and whether this condition has yet wholly passed away admits of grave doubt, especially in view of the fact that large portions of the earth are yet un-christianized. But it would be of little avail to argue this abstract question. Unless we can bring recent and well authenticated cases of miracles wrought publicly and indubitably, few, if any, will believe that we have now the right to look for them. This, we apprehend, is really the settled and universal conviction of Christian people of the present day-of Protestants at least. Hence to Prof. Tyndall's challenge that we should test the efficacy of prayer by a miraculous answer, we simply reply that we do not expect any such thing, nor do we feel ourselves authorized to pray for it. This is not now the legitimate scope or province of Christian prayer.
We are well aware that a certain class of well-attested and indeed not infrequent facts is commonly appealed to in order to maintain at least the vestiges of this power as still extant in the Church. Most striking, perhaps, among these occurrences are the remarkable cases of recovery from anl apparently incurable sickness, some of which have transpired within the knowledge of almost every one. These have sometimes taken place in a very marked manner in answer to the prayers of friends and congregations. Far be it from us to deny the efficacy of prayer in such cases, or to say a word that would discourage prayer in other like cases. But none of these cases-we mean those of which we have sufficient details and full authentication-at all come up to the idea and definition of a proper miracle. They all lack at least three of the essential circumstances of such an event: 1st. They are not obvious, palpable, direct, and instantaneous reversals of the established laws of nature. Many persons have been raised from a seeming bed of death as low as any of these, when all hopes and means of restoration had been abandoned, and yet no one thought of a miracle; perhaps no one had even prayed for recovery. The cases are not clearly supernatural. 2nd. These cures are not effected by any individual consciously and avowedly authorized to exercise the divine power in the case. In a miracle there must be no misgiving, no hesitation, no shifting of responsibility on the part of the operator. He must positively know and explicitly assert that he is “the finger of God;” otherwise his act becomes the most blasphemous assumption. 3d. Genuine miracles have only been wrought as an ocular demonstration of the commission of a divine messenger or teacher; they have in all instances been resorted to solely in personal attestation of sacred truth. No new doctrine or fresh communication from Heaven purports to be made in connection with the remarkable cases under consideration. The cures are besought as a personal favor, out of regard for private feeling or public usefulness. But these were not the motives which induced our Lord or his apostles to work miracles. They simply wrought them to prove the truth of Christianity. Just here, if anywhere, may doubtless be discovered the reason why miracles have not been perpetuated. There remains no longer any fresh revelation of God's will to man; no new dispensation or even agencies are to be established on the divine part; and therefore no such special credentials are issued from the court of heaven. Its ambassadors have only the common seal of the Gospel-the fruits of their ministry.
The same kind of argument disposes of all the other special providences often cited in proof of a divine intervention in answer to prayer. These likewise are not miracles, nor are they commonly so regarded. There is, however, thus much of valuable truth in the assumption of their pertinency here, namely, that they are really and purposely interferences of God on behalf of those interested, and at the request of the petitioners. That God is able to introduce himself at any and every point in mundane affairs, whether great or small, is one of the clearest doctrines of the Bible; in fact, it is a necessary supposition in any religion. But that he is able to do this without disturbing the order usually styled “the laws of nature” is with equal certainty his prerogative as Creator and Preserver of all. To argue otherwise is either to dethrone him from the dominion of the universe, or to confound government with revolution. Providence is not miraculous; it may be special, or even extraordinary, but it is not therefore out of or contrary to fixed rule. Just here, on the other hand, we must be permitted to enter our protest against the specious reasoning in Bushnell's Nature and the Supernatural, which, in our judgment, virtually does away with all miracle by reducing it to an imaginary, higher, and hitherto unknown law of divine establishment, called “moral,” so as to save it from the odium of conflict with nature. A miracle, by its very definition, must be a supersedure-or a temporary violation, if you please of a well-known and fixed law of nature. It is upon precisely this point that its whole significance depends. Eliminate this element, and you destroy its entire moral force. That the laws of physical nature are administered in ultimate subservience to those of the moral universe is the economy approved no less by reason than by Scripture. But these must not be merged the one in the other, even if they should be imagined in any case to collide. Especially must we not assume the intrusion of a superior moral law into the domain of nature, supplanting it in that sphere, and so divesting a miracle of its real miraculousness. When God works a miracle he sets aside, we must suppose, a certain law or series of laws of nature for the time being, and in that particular respect, by virtue of his own superior right as creator. It is not merely the spontaneous supervention of a mightier countervailing law up to that time held in abeyance for such conjunctions. The latter assumption is only an insidious form of modern rationalism, which would fain, at all hazard, divest the miracles of the Bible of their supernatural, character. We must never forget that a miracle is a physical fact, but one in its very nature abnormal from a scientific point of view.
Nor do we overlook the argument derived from the moral change effected by the Holy Spirit in regeneration and sanctification. These are often claimed as miracles of grace. That they are supernatural, in the sense of being wrought by a power beyond and superior to human nature, is certainly true; but the fact that they are specially, or even immediately, the work of God does not prove them to be properly miraculous. For, in the first place, in this respect they are merely analogous to any act of particular divine providence, and in like manner they lack all the essential characteristics of a miracle, namely, a point-blank contradiction of natural law, the authoritative behest of an operator and a moral truth to be sanctioned. They are answers to prayer which await the divine pleasure, on the performance of certain well-known and universally fixed conditions. They are in no sense special or arbitrary. On the contrary, they are most fully under the dominion of law, and can be counted upon with the most invariable certainty. They are as sure to follow the diligent use of the appointed means as any other effect is to flow from its appropriate cause. Indeed, all the healthful and legitimate influences of the Spirit are normal and in the regular line of our own mental action (Joh_3:8). Even the afflatus of inspiration is no exception to this rule (1Co_14:32). But, in the second place, the spiritual character of the revolution at conversion places it altogether outside the category of miraculous events. These latter always have reference, more or less intimately, to the realm of physics; they appeal to the senses; they must be susceptible of ocular, audible, tangible proof. This is their only security against imposition or self-delusion. If in any case, as in the instance of the miraculous “gift of unknown tongues” in the early Church, and the expulsion of demons from the possessed, they have their seat in the mind yet they exhibit palpable evidences through the organs and acts of the body, namely, the language of the endowed, and the rational behavior of the dispossessed. In short, miracles are material evidences of a supernatural authority.
In the discussion of this whole question we would do well to see what Scripture says on the subject. There is a large class of passages, chiefly in the words of our Lord Jesus himself, which seem to give the believer the broadest privilege in this respect. For example, he said to his disciples on one occasion, “If ye have faith as a grain of mustard-seed, ye shall say unto this mountain, Remove hence to yonder place; and it shall remove: and nothing shall be impossible to you” (Mat_17:20); and on another occasion he told them, “If ye have faith, and doubt not, ye shall not only do that which is done to the fig-tree, but also if ye shall say unto this mountain, Be thou removed, and be thou cast into the sea, it shall be done; and all things whatsoever ye shall ask in prayer believing, ye shall receive” (Mat_21:21-22). Elsewhere he adds another condition to this grant: “Whatsoever ye shall ask in my name, that will I do, that the Father may be glorified in the Son. If ye shall ask anything in my name, I will do it” (Joh_14:13-14); and again, “Whatsoever ye shall ask the Father in my name, he will give it you” (Joh_16:23). The force of these declarations is usually parried, as to the question under consideration, by the explanation that they were addressed to the apostles as such, and intended to apply in their full sense only to them in their official capacity or at furthest only to Christian teachers in the apostolic age. It is true there is nothing in the language that thus limits them, but it is claimed that the fact of the cessation of the miracle working power proves that such was the intention of the Grantor. We suggest the query whether this very interpretation has not clipped the wings of that faith upon which the believer is here authorized to soar into the higher region of Christian privilege. For aught that legitimately appears to the contrary, if the grant has been revoked, it has been precisely and solely in consequence of unbelief in these identical promises. But, be that as it may, in point of fact, we repeat, few it any sane and orthodox Christians nowadays profess to have the requisite faith to venture upon such acts; and therefore the question is narrowed down, whether rightly or wrongly, to the commonplace sphere of nonmiraculous subjects of prayer.
There is one passage of Scripture, however, that appears to have escaped the general attention of writers and speakers on this topic, but which is. as it seems to us, peculiarly apposite, if not conclusive of the whole ground of controversy. It is as follows in the ordinary English version: “The effectual fervent prayer of a righteous man availeth much” (Jam_5:16). The context shows that this language bears most appropriately on the points we have been discussing. The apostle had just been speaking of the prayer of the united Church on behalf of the sick, assuring them that these would be efficacious; and he goes on immediately to speak of the miracle-working prayers of Elias, taking care to observe that this noted prophet was after all only “a man subject to like passions as we are,” and hence obviously inferring that prayer was still as available as it had been in his case. Unfortunately the common rendering of the passage as above has confused, if not wholly perverted, its real meaning. As it now stands, it contains a palpable tautology, for “effectual prayer,” of course, “availeth much.” and the epithet “fervent” likewise thus becomes superfluous, as well as the qualification “of a righteous man.” The single Greek word translated by “effectual fervent” (ἐνεργούμενος) literally means inwrought. The only question among interpreters is whether it may not be reflexive (middle voice), and thus signify in working itself, that is, operative or effective. This was evidently the view of our authorized translators, and they have been followed by many scholars, including Robinson (Lexicon of the N.T.) and Alford (Greek Test.), the latter of whom renders the passage after the order of the Greek words, “‘The supplication of the righteous man availeth much in its working,” that is, as he explains it from Huther, “The prayer of the righteous can do much in its energy.” But this leaves the tautology about the same. Lange's note (Commentary, ad loc.), after reviewing the other instances of the use of the word in the N.T., approaches the true idea, “The full tension of the praying spirit under its absolute yielding to the divine impulse;” but Mombert's gloss (in the American edition), “Absolute submission to the will of God,” completely neutralizes its meaning.
The passire sense of the participle is required by its grammatical form, and is justified by every passage where this form occurs: e.g.sinful passions are inwrought (Rom_7:5); salvation is inwrought by endurance (2Co_1:6); death is in wrought (2Co_4:12); faith is inwrought by love (Gal_5:6); God's power is inwrought (Eph_3:20, precisely parallel with our text, as also in Colossians 1, 29), and similarly his word (1Th_2:13), and on the other hand the “mystery of iniquity” (2Th_2:7). The thought of the apostle James, therefore, is, as Michaelis (after the Greek fathers) interprets, that the saint's prayer prevails when its earnestness is divinely inspired. To this sense the illustration of Elijah is most apt, as we may see by referring especially to the history alluded to (1Ki_18:42-45). The scene is graphically described by Stanley (Lectures on Jewish History, 2d series, p. 337, Amer. ed.), but as usual he misses the spiritual import. The seven-times bent form of the prophet, with his head between his knees, was not merely “the Oriental attitude of entire abstraction;” it denoted the intense struggle of his soul after the boon which Jehovah inwardly urged him to crave. It was an agony of prayer that would not be denied, similar, though less exhaustive to that of our Savior in the garden, which we learn (Heb_5:7) was effectual as to its main object (Luk_22:43). Another example of the same energized prayer for which Elijah is adduced by the apostle occurs earlier in the account of the raising to life of the son of the widow of Zerephath, where the praying prophet “stretched himself upon the child three times” (1Ki_17:21), as if he would infuse his own ardent soul into the lifeless form (compare the more detailed narrative in the parallel case of Elisha and the Shunammite's son, 2Ki_4:34). He has had a very shallow experience of “the deep things of God” (2Co_3:10, the passage having reference to this very point) who has not felt “the Spirit itself making intercession with groanings which cannot be uttered” (Rom_8:26). At such times the veil between the natural and the miraculous becomes thin indeed. See Cocker, Theism (N. Y. 1876, 12mo); Dawson, Nature and the Bible, p. 59, 66; Farrar, (Crit. Fist. of Free Thought, p. 395; Blackwood's Magazine, June, 1867, p. 680; Meth. Quar. Rev. Oct. 1854, p. 526; New Enlander, Oct. 1873, art. 1; Ch. Monthly, June, 1866, p. 330; Lond. Quar. Rev. Oct. 1854, p. 32; Presb. Rev. April, 1870; Bapt. Quar. Oct. 1873, art. 4; Brit. and Foe. Ev. Quar. Rev. Oct. 1873, art. 3; Theol. Medium, Jan. 1874, art. 3; Bibl. Sacra, Jan. 1870, p. 199; Jan. 1875, art. 5; Contenp. Rev. July, Aug., Oct. 1872; South. Quar. Rev. April, 1875, art. 4. Comp. SEE MIRACLE.

CYCLOPEDIA OF BIBLICAL, THEOLOGICAL AND ECCLESIASTICAL
press 1895.

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