Mark, The Gospel According to

VIEW:18 DATA:01-04-2020

(See ACTS; BARNABAS; GOSPELS.) "John (his Hebrew name) whose surname was Mark" (his Roman name): Mar_12:12; Mar_12:25; Mar_13:5; Mar_13:13; Mar_15:39; Col_4:10; 2Ti_4:11; Phm_1:24. The Roman supplanted the Jewish name, as Paul did Saul. The change marks his entrance on a new and worldwide ministry. The fathers unanimously testify that Mark was "interpreter" (hermeneutees, Papias in Eusebius, H. E. iii. 39; Irenaeus, Haer. iii. 1,10, sec. 6) to Peter; meaning one who expresses and clothes in words the testimony of another. Papias, or John Presbyter (in Eusebius, H. E. iii. 39), states that Mark wrote "not in order," i.e. he wrote "some" leading facts, not a complete history. He attests Mark's accuracy, saying "he committed no error," but made it his aim "to omit nought of what he heard and to state nothing untrue."
Peter's name and presence are mentioned on occasions where apparently there is no reason for it; Mark herein wished to bring the apostle forward as his authority (see Mar_1:36; Mar_5:37; Mar_11:20-26; Mar_13:3). There are indications of the author having been a Galilean, which Peter was. Thus, Herod the tetrarch is styled "king"; the "lake' (as Luk_8:22 calls it, for he knew larger sects) is called "the sea of Galilee" (Mar_5:1). Only in Mar_6:30 the term of dignity, "apostle," is found; in Luke, as writing later, it frequently occurs. Things to their discredit are ingenuously stated by Matthew and Mark (Peter), as we might expect from apostles writing about themselves; but are sparingly introduced by Luke (Mat_16:9; Mar_7:18; Mar_10:41; Mar_14:31; Mar_6:52; Mar_9:10; Mar_10:32, the last three not in Matthew).
The account of many things is marked by vivid touches suitable to an eye-witness only, which Peter was; e.g. Mar_6:39, "the green grass" in the feeding of the 5,000; "the pillow of the ship" (Mar_4:38); Mar_10:50, "casting away his garment"; Mar_11:4, "the colt tied by the door without in a place where two ways met." The details of the demon-possessed Gadarene: "no man could bind him, no not with chains, because he had often been bound, and the chains had been plucked asunder by him, and the fetters broken in pieces; neither could any man tame him. And always, night and day, he was in the mountains, crying, and cutting himself with stones," etc. (Mar_5:2-5); and also the wild cry of another reproduced, "Ea" ("Ha!" not as KJV, "let us alone"), Mar_1:24.
Jesus' looks, Mar_3:5, "He looked round about on them in anger" (Mar_3:34); Mar_8:33; Mar_10:21-23, "Jesus beholding loved him," etc.; Mar_8:12, He sighed deeply in spirit ... why doth this generation seek after a sign?" Mar_1:41, "Jesus moved with compassion put forth His hand" touching the leper. All these minute touches, peculiar to him, show his Gospel is no epitome of the others but an independent witness, Mark tells Peter's humble origin (Mar_1:16-20), his connection with Capernaum (Mar_1:29), that Levi was son of Alphaeus (Mar_2:14), that Boanerges was the title given by Christ to James and John (Mar_3:17), that, the ruler of the synagogue was named Jairus (Mar_5:22), that Jesus was a "carpenter" (Mar_6:3), that the Canaanite woman was a Syrophoenician (Mar_7:26). Mark gives Dalmanutha for Magdala (Mar_8:10; Mat_15:39).
He names Bartimaeus (Mar_10:46), states that "Jesus would not suffer any to carry any vessel through the temple" (Mar_11:16), that Simon of Cyrene was father of Alexander and Rufus (Mar_15:21). Peter would be the probable source of these particulars of Mark's information. Jesus' rebuke of Peter is recorded, but His preeminent praise of him is omitted (Mar_8:32-33; compare Mat_16:18; Mat_16:23). The account of the thrice denial is full, but "bitterly" is omitted from his repentance (Mar_14:72). This is just what we might expect from an apostle writing about himself. The Roman character preponderates, abounding in facts rather than doctrines, and practical details told with straightforward, energetic, manly simplicity.
Of passages peculiar to Mark are Mar_3:20-21, Christ's friends' attempt on Him; Mar_4:26-29, parable of the seed growing secretly; Mar_7:31-37, healing the deaf mute; Mar_8:22-26, gradual cure of the blind; Mar_11:11; Mar_14:51-52; Mar_16:7, the special message to Peter after the resurrection, to cheer him in his despondency after the thrice denial. Only twice Mark quotes Old Testament himself (Mal_3:1; Isa_40:3), namely, Mar_1:2; Mar_1:3; but often introduces Christ and those addressing Him quoting it. The Sinaiticus, Vaticanus, and Alexandrinus manuscripts omit Mar_15:28, which is an interpolation from Luk_22:37. Mark alone has "the sabbath was made for man" (Mar_2:27), and the scribe's admission that love is better than sacrifices (Mar_12:33); all suited for Gentile readers, to whom Peter, notwithstanding subsequent vacillation, first opened the door (Acts 10).
He notices Jesus being "with the wild beasts" when tempted by Satan in the wilderness; contrast Adam tempted amidst the tame animals in Eden (Genesis 2; 3). Adam changed paradise into a wilderness, Jesus changes the wilderness into paradise. Other scenes to Peter's honor omitted are Luk_5:1-11, his walking on the sea (Mat_14:28-31), his commission to get, the tribute money from the fish (Mat_17:24-27), Jesus' special intercession for him (Luk_22:31-32), his being one of the two sent to prepare the Passover (Luk_22:8). Mark's explanations of Jewish customs and names (Jordan is called a "river"; the Pharisees' fasting and customs, Mar_1:5; Mar_2:18; Mar_7:1-4; the Sadducees' tenets, Mar_12:18; the Passover described, Mar_14:1; Mar_14:12) which Jews would not need, and the absence of appeals by himself to Old Testament prophecy, also of the genealogy and of the term nomos, the Mosaic "law," show he wrote for Gentiles not for Jews.
Accordingly he omits the offensive references to the Gentiles found in Mat_6:7-8; Mat_10:5-6; compare Mar_6:7-11; so Luke writing for Gentiles (Luk_9:1-5). Moreover Mark (Mar_11:17) inserts what is not in Matthew or Luke, cf6 "My house shall be called of all nations the house of prayer." He abounds in Latinisms, agreeably to the theory that he wrote for Romans, whose terms his and Peter's intimacy with them would dispose him to use: thus "centurion" for hekatontarchos elsewhere in New Testament, paidiothen = "a puero", kodrantes = "quadrans", denarion = "denarius", halas analon = "sal insulsum", "specoulator", "censos", "fragelloo" (flagello), xestes (sextarius), megistanes = "magnates", legeon = "legio". The explanation of a Greek term aulee by the Latin proetorium (Mar_15:16) could only be for Roman readers. Style. Unusual Greek expressions occur: exapina, epistentrechein, pistike, eneileo, efie, proelaben murisai, alalos, enangkalizesthai. Diminutives abound, thugatrion, korasion, otarion, kunaria.
He employs as the phrase most characteristic of his Gospel eutheoos, "straightway," "immediately," 41 times. His use of the present tense for the past gives vivid present reality to his pictures. He details minutely localities, times, and numbers. He introduces persons' speaking directly. He is often abrupt as he is graphic, e.g. Mark 1, where he hurries on to our Lord's: official life, which he sketches with lifelike energy. "While the sequence and connection of the longer discourses was that which the Holy Spirit peculiarly brought to Matthew's mind, the apostle from whom Mark's record is derived seems to have been deeply penetrated by the solemn iterations of cadence and expression, and to have borne away the very words themselves and the tone of the Lord's sayings" (Alford), e.g. the sublime reply Mar_9:39-50, the thrice repeated "where their worm dieth not and the fire is not quenched," sounding in the ears as a peal of doom.
This Gospel especially pictures Jesus' outward gestures, e.g. His actions in curing the deaf (Mar_7:33-34), He takes him aside from the multitude, puts His fingers into his ears, spits, touches his tongue, looks up to heaven, sighs, and saith, "Ephphatha". Hebrew (Aramaic) words are used, but explained for Gentile readers: Mar_3:17; Mar_3:22; Mar_5:41, Talitha kumi; Mar_7:11, korban; Mar_9:43, gehenna; Mar_10:46, Bar-timaeus; Mar_14:36, Abba; Mar_15:22, Golgotha. The style, though abounding in Latinisms, is more related. to the Hebraistic style of Matthew than to Luke's pure Greek.
From the Latinisms, and the place where, and the persons to whom it was written, it was thought originally to have been in Latin; so the Syriac version states, and many Greek manuscripts, "it was written in Rome, in the Roman language." But Mark's assuming his readers' acquaintance with Jewish localities is opposed to the opinion that he wrote at Rome (after Peter's departure from or decease in that city) which John Presbyter and Irenaeus endorse. In the New Testament record of Paul's labors in and for Rome no allusion occurs to Peter in connection with Christianity there. The internal evidence of Mark's Gospel is in favor of its being early in date; this it could not be if it were written after any supposed date of Peter's having preached at Rome. If Peter ever was at Rome it must have been after Paul's two years spent in Rome, and after the writing of Acts which records it. Paul and Luke, the writer of Acts (Acts 28), evidently knew nothing of Peter having founded a church there.
All is clear, if Mark wrote the Gospel in connection with the Roman Caesarea. Here Peter first preached, and it was for his converts that Mark, his son in the faith, wrote a Gospel suited in style to the energetic character of their nation, and embodying the teaching of the first apostolic missionary to them, Peter. In exact agreement with the date which this would presume, Eusebius (Chronicle) fixes on the third year of Claudius, A.D. 43, shortly after Cornelius' conversion, a date when certainly Peter was not at Rome notwithstanding Eusebius' statement, to which he probably was led by the early circulation of Mark's Gospel at Rome by Roman converts passing there from Caesarea; hence probably originated the story of Peter's visiting Rome.
Possibly the last 12 verses of Mark 16, not found in the Sinaiticus and the Vaticanus manuscripts but found in the Alexandrinus manuscript, were added at the later date assigned by Irenaeus, i.e. A.D. 64. This will agree with Mar_16:20, "they went forth and preached everywhere," which implies that by this time the apostles had left Judaea and had preached in most lands, though they had not done so before the Gospel itself was written. As Matthew's Gospel, adapted to Jewish readers, and probably written in and for Jerusalem or Judaea, answers to the earliest period (Acts 1-11), the Hebrew period ending about A.D. 40, so Mark answers to the second or Judaeo-Gentile period, A.D. 40 to 50, and is suited to Gentile converts such as the Roman soldiers concentrated at Caesarea, their head quarters in Palestine, the second center of gospel preaching as Jerusalem was the first, and the scene of Cornelius' conversion by Mark's father in the faith, Peter.
The Sinaiticus and Vaticanus manuscripts omit Mar_16:9-20, but Alexandrinus and Beza and Paris manuscripts and Vulgate support them, and "they were afraid" would be a strangely abrupt close of the Gospel. Irenaeus (iii. 10, sec. 6) quotes from them. Justin Martyr quotes Mar_9:44; Mar_9:46; Mar_9:48; Mar_12:30; Mar_3:17. The motto of this Gospel may be taken from its probable author, Peter (Act_10:38) "God anointed Jesus of Nazareth with the Holy Spirit and with power; who went about doing good, and healing all that were oppressed of the devil, for God was with Him."
Fausset's Bible Dictionary
By Andrew Robert Fausset, co-Author of Jamieson, Fausset and Brown's 1888.

I. OUR SECOND GOSPEL
II. CONTENTS AND GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
1. Scope
2. Material Peculiar to Mark
3. Quotations
4. A Book of Mighty Works
5. The Worker Is Also a Teacher
6. A Book of Graphic Details
III. THE TEXT
IV. LANGUAGE
1. General Character
2. Vocabulary
3. Style
4. Original Language
V. AUTHORSHIP
1. External Evidence
2. Internal Evidence
VI. SOURCES AND INTEGRITY
VII. DATE AND PLACE OF COMPOSITION
VIII. HISTORICITY
IX. PURPOSE AND PLAN
1. The Gospel for Romans
2. Plan of the Gospel
X. LEADING DOCTRINES
1. Person of Christ
2. The Trinity
3. Salvation
4. Eschatology
LITERATURE

I. Our Second Gospel.
The order of the Gospels in our New Testament is probably due to the early conviction that this was the order in which the Gospels were written. It was not, however, the invariable order. The question of order only arose when the roll was superseded by the codex, our present book-form. That change was going on in the 3rd century. Origen found codices with the order John-Matthew-Mark-Luke - due probably to the desire to give the apostles the leading place. That and the one common today may be considered the two main groupings - the one in the order of dignity, the other in that of time. The former is Egyptian and Latin; the latter has the authority of most Greek manuscripts, Catalogues and Fathers, and is supported by the old Syriac.
Within these, however, there are variations. The former is varied thus: John-Matthew-Luke-Mark, and Matthew-John-Mark-Luke, and Matthew-John-Luke-Mark; the latter to Matthew-Mark-John-Luke. Mark is never first; when it follows Luke, the time consideration has given place to that of length.

II. Contents and General Characteristics.
1. Scope:
The Gospel begins with the ministry of John the Baptist and ends with the announcement of the Resurrection, if the last 12 verses be not included. These add post-resurrection appearances, the Commission, the Ascension, and a brief summary of apostolic activity. Thus its limits correspond closely with those indicated by Peter in Act_10:37-43. Nothing is said of the early Judean ministry. The Galilean ministry and Passion Week with the transition from the one to the other (in Acts 10) practically make up the Gospel.

2. Material Peculiar to Mark:
Matter peculiar to Mark is found in Mar_4:26-29 (the seed growing secretly); Mar_3:21 (his kindred's fear); Mar_7:32-37 (the deaf and dumb man); Mar_8:22-26 (the blind man); Mar_13:33-37 (the householder and the exhortation to watch); Mar_14:51 (the young man who escaped). But, in addition to this, there are many vivid word-touches with which the common material is lighted up, and in not a few of the common incidents Mark's account is very much fuller; e.g. 6:14-29 (death of John the Baptist); Mk 7:1-23 (on eating with unwashen hands); 9:14-29 (the demoniac boy); Mar_12:28-34 (the questioning scribe). There is enough of this material to show clearly that the author could not have been wholly dependent on the other evangelists. Hawkins reckons the whole amount of peculiar material at about fifty verses (Hor. Syn., 11).

3. Quotations:
In striking contrast to Matthew who, in parallel passages, calls attention to the fulfillment of prophecy by Jesus, Mark only once quotes the Old Testament and that he puts in the very forefront of his Gospel. The Isa part of his composite quotation appears in all 4 Gospels; the Malachi part in Mark only, though there is a reflection of it in Joh_3:28. This fact alone might convey an erroneous impression of the attitude of the Gospel to the Old Testament. Though Mark himself makes only this one twofold reference, yet he represents Jesus as doing so frequency. The difference in this respect between him and Matthew is not great. He has 19 formal quotations as compared with 40 in Matthew, 17 in Luke and 12 in John. Three of the 19 are not found elsewhere. The total for the New Testament is 160, so that Mark has a fair proportion. When Old Testament references and loose citations are considered the result is much the same. Westcott and Hort, The New Testament in Greek give Matthew 100, Mark 58, Luke 86, John 21, Acts 107. Thus. the Old Testament lies back of Mark also as the authoritative word of God. Swete (Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek, 393) points out that in those quotations which are common to the synoptists the Septuagint is usually followed; in others, the Hebrew more frequently. (A good illustration is seen in Mar_7:7 where the Septuagint is followed in the phrase, ?in vain do they worship me? - a fair para-phrase of the Hebrew; but ?teaching as their doctrines the precepts of men? is a more correct representation of the Hebrew than the Septuagint gives.) Three quotations are peculiar to Mark, namely, Mar_9:48; Mar_10:19; Mar_12:32.

4. A Book of Mighty Works:
Judged by the space occupied, Mark is a Gospel of deeds. Jesus is a worker. His life is one of strenuous activity. He hastens from one task to another with energy and decision. The word εὐθύς, euthús, i.e. ?straightway,? is used 42 times as against Matthew's 7 and Luke's 1. In 14 of these, as compared with 2 in Matthew and none in Luke, the word is used of the personal activity of Jesus. It is not strange therefore that the uneventful early years should be passed over (compare Joh_2:11). Nor is it strange that miracles should be more numerous than parables. According to Westcott's classification (Introduction to Study of the Gospel, 480-86), Mark has 19 miracles and only 4 parables, whereas the corresponding figures for Matthew are 21 to 15 and for Luke 20 to 19. Of the miracles 2 are peculiar to Mark, of the parables only 1. The evangelist clearly records the deeds rather than the words of Jesus. These facts furnish another point of contact with Peter's speeches in Acts - the beneficent character of the deeds in Act_10:38, and their evidential significance in Act_2:22 (compare Mar_1:27; Mar_2:10, etc.).
The following are the miracles recorded by Mark: the unclean spirit (Mar_1:21-28), the paralytic (Mar_2:1-12), the withered hand (Mar_3:1-5), the storm stilled (Mar_4:35-41), the Gerasene demoniac (5:1-17), Jairus' daughter (Mar_5:22 ff), the woman with the issue (Mar_5:25-34), feeding the 5,000 (Mar_6:35-44), feeding the 4,000 (Mar_8:1-10), walking on the water (Mar_6:48 ff); the Syrophoenician's daughter (Mar_7:24-30), the deaf mute (Mar_7:31-37), the blind man (Mar_8:22-26), the demoniac boy (Mar_9:14 ff), blind Bartimeus (Mar_10:46-52), the fig tree withered (Mar_11:20 ff), the resurrection (Mar_16:1 ff). For an interesting classification of these see Westcott's Introduction to Study of the Gospels, 391. Only the last three belong to Judea.

5. The Worker Is also a Teacher:
Though what has been said is true, yet Mark is by no means silent about Jesus as a teacher. John the Baptist is a preacher (Mar_1:4, Mar_1:7), and Jesus also is introduced as a preacher, taking up and enlarging the message of John. Very frequent mention is made of him as teaching (e.g. Mar_1:21; Mar_2:13; Mar_6:6, etc.); indeed the words διδαχή, didachḗ, and διδάσκω, didáskō, occur more frequently in Mark than in any other Gospel. Striking references are made to His originality, methods, popularity and peerlessness as a teacher (Mar_1:22; Mar_4:1 f, 33; 11:27 through 12:37; especially Mar_12:34). A miracle is definitely declared to be for the purpose of instruction (Mar_2:10), and the implication is frequent that His miracles were not only the dictates of His compassion, but also purposed self-revelations (Mar_5:19 f; Mar_11:21-23). Not only is He Himself a teacher, but He is concerned to prepare others to be teachers (Mar_3:13 f; Mar_4:10 f). Mark is just as explicit as Matthew in calling attention to the fact that at a certain stage He began teaching the multitude in parables, and expounding the parables to His disciples (Mar_4:2-11 f). He mentions, however, only four of them - the Sower (Mk 4:1-20), the Seed Growing Secretly (Mar_4:26-29), the Mustard Seed (Mar_4:30-32) and the Husband-men (Mar_12:1-12). The number of somewhat lengthy discourses and the total amount of teaching is considerably greater than is sometimes recognized. Mark 4 and 13 approach most nearly to the length of the discourses in Matthew and correspond to Mt 13 and 24 respectively. But in Mk 7:1-23; 9:33-50; 10:5-31, Mar_10:39-45 and 12:1-44 we have quite extensive sayings. If Jesus is a worker, He is even more a teacher. His works prepare for His words rather than His words for His works. The teachings grew naturally out of the occasion and the circumstances. He did and taught. Because He did what He did He could teach with effectiveness. Both works and words reveal Himself.

6. A Book of Graphic Details:
There is a multitude of graphic details: Mark mentions actions and gestures of Jesus (Mar_7:33; Mar_9:36; Mar_10:16) and His looks of inquiry (Mar_5:32), in prayer (Mar_6:41; Mar_7:34), of approval (Mar_3:34), love (Mar_10:21), warning (to Judas especially Mar_10:23), anger (Mar_3:5), and in judgment (Mar_11:11). Jesus hungers (Mar_11:12), seeks rest in seclusion (Mar_6:31) and sleeps on the boat cushion (Mar_4:38); He pities the multitude (Mar_6:34), wonders at men's unbelief (Mar_6:6), sighs over their sorrow and blindness (Mar_6:34; Mar_8:12), grieves at their hardening (Mar_3:5), and rebukes in sadness the wrong thought of His mother and brothers, and in indignation the mistaken zeal and selfish ambitions of His disciples (Mar_8:33; Mar_10:14). Mark represents His miracles of healing usually as instantaneous (Mar_1:31; Mar_2:11 f; Mar_3:5), sometimes as gradual or difficult (Mar_1:26; Mar_7:32-35; Mar_9:26-28), and once as flatly impossible ?because of their unbelief? (Mar_6:6). With many vivid touches we are told of the behavior of the people and the impression made on them by what Jesus said or did. They bring their sick along the streets and convert the market-place into a hospital (Mar_1:32), throng and jostle Him by the seaside (Mar_3:10), and express their astonishment at His note of authority (Mar_1:22) and power (Mar_2:12). Disciples are awed by His command over the sea (Mar_4:41), and disciples and others are surprised and alarmed at the strange look of dread as He walks ahead alone, going up to Jerusalem and the cross (Mar_10:32). Many other picturesque details are given, as in Mar_1:13 (He was with the wild beasts); Mar_2:4 (digging through the roof); Mar_4:38 (lying asleep on the cushion); Mar_5:4 (the description of the Gerasene demoniac); Mar_6:39 (the companies, dressed in many colors and looking like flower beds on the green mountain-side). Other details peculiar to Mark are: names (Mar_1:29; Mar_3:6; Mar_13:3; Mar_15:21), numbers (Mar_5:13; Mar_6:7), time (Mar_1:35; Mar_2:1; Mar_11:19; Mar_16:2), and place (Mar_2:13; Mar_3:8; Mar_7:31; Mar_12:41; Mar_13:3; Mar_14:68 and Mar_15:39). These strongly suggest the observation of an eyewitness as the final authority, and the geographical references suggest that even the writer understood the general features of the country, especially of Jerusalem and its neighborhood. (For complete lists see Lindsay, Mark's Gospel, 26 ff.)

III. The Text.
Of the 53 select readings noted by Westcott and Hort, The New Testament in Greek (Intro), only a few are of special interest or importance. The following are to be accepted: ἐν τῷ Ἠσαία τῷ προφήτῃ, (Mar_1:2) ἁμαρτήματος, (Mar_3:29); πλήρης, (indeclinable, Mar_4:28); ὁ τεκτων, (Mar_6:3; Jesus is here called ?the carpenter?); αὐτοῦ, (Mar_6:22, Herod's daughter probably had two names, Salome and Herodias); πυγμῆ, (Mar_7:23, ?with the fist,? i.e. ?thoroughly,? not πυκνά, ?oft?). Westcott and Hort, The New Testament in Greek are to be followed in rejecting πιστεῦσαι, (leaving the graphic Εί δύνῃ, (Mar_9:23)); καὶ νηστείᾳ, (Mar_9:29); πᾶσα...ἀλισθήσεται (Mar_9:49); τοῦς ...χρήμασι (Mar_10:24); but not in rejecting υίοῦ θεοῦ (Mar_1:1). They are probably wrong in retaining οὔς ὠνόμασαν (Mar_3:14; it was probably added from Luk_6:31); and in rejecting καί κλινῶν and accepting ῥαντίσωνται instead of βαπτίσωνται (Mar_7:4; ignorance of the extreme scrupulosity of the Jews led to these scribal changes; compare Luk_11:38, where ἐβαπτίσθη is not disputed). So one may doubt ἠπόρει (Mar_6:20), and suspect it of being an Alexandrian correction for ἐποίει which was more difficult and yet is finely appropriate.
The most important textual problem is that of Mar_16:9-20. Burgon and Miller and Salmon believe it to be genuine. Miller supposes that up to that point Mark had been giving practically Peter's words, that for some reason those then failed him and that Mar_16:9-20 are drawn from his own stores. The majority of scholars regard them as non-Markan; they think Mar_16:8 is not the intended conclusion; that if Mark ever wrote a conclusion, it has been lost, and that Mar_16:9-20, embodying traditions of the Apostolic Age, were supplied later. Conybeare has found in an Armenian manuscript a note referring these verses to the presbyter Ariston, whom he identifies with that Aristion, a disciple of John, of whom Papias speaks. Many therefore would regard them as authentic, and some accept them as clothed with John's authority. They are certainly very early, perhaps as early as 100 AD, and have the support of Codices Alexandrinus, Ephraemi, Bezae, Xi, Gamma, Delta, Zeta all late uncials, all cursives, most versions and Fathers, and were known to the scribes of Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus, who, however, do not accept them.
It is just possible that the Gospel did end at verse 8. The very abruptness would argue an early date when Christians lived in the atmosphere of the Resurrection and would form an even appropriate closing for the Gospel of the Servant (see below). A Servant comes, fulfills his task, and departs - we do not ask about his lineage, nor follow his subsequent history.

IV. Language.
1. General Character:
Mark employs the common coloquial Greek of the day, understood everywhere throughout the Greek-Roman world. It was emphatically the language of the Character people, ?known and read of all men.? His vocabulary is equally removed from the technicalities of the schools and from the slang of the streets. It is the clean, vigorous, direct speech of the sturdy middle class.

2. Vocabulary:
Of his 1, 330 words, 60 are proper names. Of the rest 79 are peculiar to Mark, so far as the New Testament is concerned; 203 are found elsewhere only in the Synoptics, 15 only in John's Gospel, 23 only in Paul (including Hebrews), 2 in the Catholic Epistles (1 in James, 1 in 2 Peter), 5 in the Apocalypse (Revelation) (see Swete, Commentary on Mark). Rather more than a fourth of the 79 are non-classical as compared with one-seventh for Luke and a little more than one-seventh for Mr. Hawkins also gives a list of 33 unusual words or expressions. The most interesting of the single words are σχιζομένους, schizoménous, ἤφιεν, ḗphien, κωμοπόλεις, kōmopóleis, ἐκεφαλιωσαν, ekephalı́ōsan, προαύλιον, proaúlion, and ὄτι, hóti, in the sense of ?why? (Mar_2:16; Mar_9:11, Mar_9:28); of the expressions, the distributives in Mar_6:7, Mar_6:39 f and Mar_14:19, the Hebraistic εἰ δοθήσεται, and ὄταν with the indicative. Of ordinary constructions the following are found with marked frequency: καί (reducing his use of δέ to half of Matthew's or Luke's), historic present (accounting for the very frequent use of λέγει instead of εἶπεν), the periphrastic imperfect, the article with infinitives or sentences, participles, and prepositions.
There are indications that the writer in earlier life was accustomed to think in Aramaic. Occasionally that fact shows itself in the retention of Aramaic words which are proportionately rather more numerous than in Matthew and twice as numerous as in Luke or John. The most interesting of these are ταλειθά κούμ, taleithá koúm, ἐφφαθά, ephphathá, and Βοανηργές, Boanērgés, each uttered at a time of intense feeling.
Latinisms in Mark are about half as numerous as Aramaisms. They number 11, the same as in Matthew, as compared with 6 in Luke and 7 in John. The greater proportion in Mark is the only really noteworthy fact in these figures. It suggests more of a Roman outlook and fits in with the common tradition as to its origin and authorship.
For certain words he has great fondness: εὐύς 42 times; ἀκάθαρτος 11 times; βλέπω, and its compounds very frequently; so ἐπερωτᾶν, ὑπάγιεν, ἐξουσία, εὐαγγέλιον, προσκαλεῖσθαι, ἐπιτιμᾶν compounds of πορεύεσθαι, ουνζητειν, and such graphic words as ἐκθαμβεῖσθαι, ἐμβριμᾶσθαι, ἐναγκαλίζεσθαι, and φιμοῦσθαι. The following he uses in an unusual sense: ἐνεῖχεν, πυγμῇ, ἀπεχει, ἐπιβαλών.
The same exact and vivid representation of the facts of actual experience accounts for the anacolutha and other broken constructions, e.g. Mar_4:31 f; Mar_5:23; Mar_6:8 f; Mar_11:32. Some are due to the insertion of explanatory clauses, as in Mar_7:3-5; some to the introduction of a quotation as in Mar_7:11 f. These phenomena represent the same type of mind as we have already seen (II., 6. above).

3. Style:
The style is very simple. The common connective is καί, kaı́. The stately periods of the classics are wholly absent. The narrative is commonly terse and concise. At times, however, a multitude of details are crowded in, resulting in unusual fullness of expression. This gives rise to numerous duplicate expressions as in Mar_1:32; Mar_2:25; Mar_5:19 and the like, which become a marked feature of the style. The descriptions are wonderfully vivid. This is helped out by the remarkably frequent use of the historic present, of which there are 151 examples, as contrasted with 78 in Matthew and 4 in Luke, apart from its use in parables. Mark never uses it in parables, whereas Matthew has 15 cases, and Luke has 5. John has 162, a slightly smaller proportion than Mark on the whole, but rather larger in narrative parts. But Mark's swift passing from one tense to another adds a variety and vividness to the narrative not found in John.

4. Original Language:
That the original language was Greek is the whole impression made by patristic references. Translations of the Gospel are always from, not into, Greek. It was the common language of the Roman world, especially for letters. Paul wrote to the Romans in Greek. Half a century later Clement wrote from Rome to Corinth in Greek. The Greek Mark bears the stamp of originality and of the individuality of the author.
Some have thought it was written in Latin. The only real support for that view is the subscription in a few manuscripts (e.g. 160, 161, ἐγράφη Ῥωμαΐστί ἐν Ῥώμῃ, egráphē Rhōmaistı́ en Rhṓmē) and in the Peshitta and Harclean Syriac. It is a mistaken deduction from the belief that it was written in Rome or due to the supposition that ?interpreter of Peter? meant that Mark translated Peter's discourses into Latin
Blass contended for an Aramaic original, believing that Luke, in the first part of Acts, followed an Aramaic source, and that that source was by the author of the Second Gospel which also, therefore, was written in Aramaic. He felt, moreover, that the text of Mark suggests several forms of the Gospel which are best explained as translations of a common original. Decisive against the view is the translation of the few Aramaic words which are retained.

V. Authorship.
1. External Evidence:
The external evidence for the authorship is found in the Fathers and the manuscripts. The most important patristic statements are the following:
Papias - Asia Minor, circa 125 AD - (quoted by Eus., HE, III, 39): ?And this also the elder said: Mark, having become the interpreter (ἐρμηνεύτης, hermēneútēs) of Peter, wrote accurately what he remembered (or recorded) of the things said or done by Christ, but not in order. For he neither heard the Lord nor followed Him; but afterward, as I said (he attached himself to) Peter who used to frame his teaching to meet the needs (of his hearers), but not as composing an orderly account (σύνταξιν, súntaxin) of the Lord's discourses, so that Mark committed no error in thus writing down some things as he remembered them: for he took thought for one thing not to omit any of the things he had heard nor to falsify anything in them.?
Justin Martyr - Palestine and the West, circa 150 AD - (In Dial. with Trypho, cvi, Migne ed.): ?And when it is said that He imposed on one of the apostles the name Peter, and when this is recorded in his 'Memoirs' with this other fact that He named the two sons of Zebedee 'Boanerges,' which means 'Sons of Thunder,' ? etc.
Irenaeus - Asia Minor and Gaul, circa 175 AD - (Adv. Haer., iii. 1, quoted in part Eus., HE, V, 8): ?After the apostles were clothed with the power of the Holy Spirit and fully furnished for the work of universal evangelization, they went out (?exierunt,? in Rufinus' translation) to the ends of the earth preaching the gospel. Matthew went eastward to those of Hebrew descent and preached to them in their own tongue, in which language he also (had?) published a writing of the gospel, while Peter and Paul went westward and preached and founded the church in Rome. But after the departure (ἔξοδον, ?exitum? in Rufinus) of the, Mark, the disciple and interpreter (ἑρμηνεύτης, hermēneútēs) of Peter, even he has delivered to us in writing the things which were preached by Peter.?
Clement of Alexandria - circa 200 AD - (Hypotyp. in Eus., HE, VI, 14): ?The occasion for writing the Gospel according to Mark was as follows: After Peter had publicly preached the word in Rome and declared the gospel by the Spirit, many who were present entreated Mark, as one who had followed him for a long time and remembered what he said, to write down what he had spoken, and Mark, after composing the Gospel, presented it to his petitioners. When Peter became aware of it he neither eagerly hindered nor promoted it.?
Also (Eus., HE, II, 15): ?So charmed were the Romans with the light that shone in upon their minds from the discourses of Peter, that, not contented with a single hearing and the viva voce proclamation of the truth, they urged with the utmost solicitation on Mark, whose Gospel is in circulation and who was Peter's attendant, that he would leave them in writing a record of the teaching which they had received by word of mouth. They did not give over until they had prevailed on him; and thus they became the cause of the composition of the so-called Gospel according to Mk. It is said that when the apostle knew, by revelation of the Spirit, what was done, he was pleased with the eagerness of the men and authorized the writing to be read in the churches.?
Tertullian - North Africa, circa 207 AD - (Adv. Marc., iv. 5): He speaks of the authority of the four Gospels, two by apostles and two by companions of apostles, ?not excluding that which was published by Mark, for it may be ascribed to Peter, whose interpreter Mark was.?
Origen - Alexandria and the East, c 240 AD - (?Comm. on Mt? quoted in Eus., HE, VI, 25): ?The second is that according to Mark who composed it, under the guidance of Peter (ὡς Πέτρος ὑφηγήσατο αὐτῷ, hōs Pétros huphēgḗsato autṓ), who therefore, in his Catholic (universal) epistle, acknowledged the evangelist as his son.?
Eusebius - Caesarea, circa 325 AD - (Dem. Evang., III, 5): ?Though Peter did not undertake, through excess of diffidence, to write a Gospel, yet it had all along been currency reported, that Mark, who had become his familiar acquaintance and attendant (γνώριμος καὶ φοιτητής, gnṓrimes kaı́ phoitētḗs) made memoirs of (or recorded, ἀπομνημονεῦσαι, apomnēmoeúsai) the discourses of Peter concerning the doings of Jesus.? ?Mark indeed writes this, but it is Peter who so testifies about himself, for all that is in Mark are memoirs (or records) of the discourses of Peter.?
Epiphanius - Cyprus, circa 350 AD - (Haer., 41): ?But immediately after Matthew, Mark, having become a follower (ἁκόλουθος, akólouthos) of the holy Peter in Rome, is entrusted in the putting forth of a gospel. Having completed his work, he was sent by the holy Peter into the country of the Egyptians.?
Jerome - East and West, circa 350 AD - (De vir. illustr., viii): ?Mark, disciple and interpreter of Peter, at the request of the brethren in Rome, wrote a brief Gospel in accordance with what he had heard Peter narrating. When Peter heard it he approved and authorized it to be read in the churches.?
Also xi: ?Accordingly he had Titus as interpreter just as the blessed Peter had Mark whose Gospel was composed, Peter narrating and Mark writing.?
Preface Commentary on Matthew: ?The second is Mark, interpreter of the apostle Peter, and first bishop of the Alexandrian church; who did not himself see the Lord Jesus, but accurately, rather than in order, narrated those of His deeds, which he had heard his teacher preaching.?
To these should be added the Muratorian Fragment - circa 170 AD - ?which gives a list of the New Testament books with a brief account of the authorship of each. The account of Matthew and most of that of Mark are lost, only these words relating to Mark being left: 'quibus tamen interfuit, et ita posuit' ? (see below).
These names represent the churches of the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th centuries, and practically every quarter of the Roman world. Quite clearly the common opinion was that Mark had written a Gospel and in it had given us mainly the teaching of Peter.
That our second Gospel is the one referred to in these statements there can be no reasonable doubt. Our four were certainly the four of Irenaeus and Tatian; and Salmon (Introduction) has shown that the same four must have been accepted by Justin, Papias and their contemporaries, whether orthodox or Gnostics. Justin's reference to the surname ?Boanerges? supports this so far as Mark is concerned, for in the Gospel of Mark alone is that fact mentioned (Mar_3:17).
A second point is equally clear - that the Gospel of Mark is substantially Peter's. Mark is called disciple, follower, interpreter of Peter. Origen expressly quotes ?Marcus, my son? (1Pe_5:13 the King James Version) in this connection. ?Disciple? is self-explanatory. ?Follower? is its equivalent, not simply a traveling companion. ?Interpreter? is less clear. One view equates it with ?translator,? because Mark translated either Peter's Aramaic discourses into Greek for the Hellenistic Christians in Jerusalem (Adeney, et al.), or Peter's Greek discourses into Latin for the Christians in Rome (Swete, et al.). The other view - that of the ancients and most moderns (e.g. Zahn, Salmon) - is that it means ?interpreter? simply in the sense that Mark put in writing what Peter had taught. The contention of Chase (HDB, III, 247) that this was a purely metaphorical use has little weight because it may be so used here. The conflict in the testimony as to date and place will be considered below (VII).
There is no clear declaration that Mark himself was a disciple of Jesus or an eyewitness of what he records. Indeed the statement of Papias seems to affirm the contrary. However, that statement may mean simply that he was not a personal disciple of Jesus, not that he had never seen Him at all.
The Muratorian Fragment is not clear. Its broken sentence has been differently understood. Zahn completes it thus: ?(ali) quibus tamen interfuit, et ita posuit,? and understands it to mean that ?at some incidents (in the life of Jesus), however, he was present and so put them down.? Chase (HDB) and others regard ?quibus tamen? as a literal translation of the Greek οἶς δὲ, hoı́s dé, and believe the meaning to be that Mark, who had probably just been spoken of as not continuously with Peter, ?was present at some of this discourses and so recorded them.? Chase feels that the phrase following respecting Luke: ?Dominum tamen nec ipse vidit in carne,? compels the belief that Mark like Luke had not seen the Lord. But Paul, not Mark, may be there in mind, and further, this interpretation rather belittles Mark's association with Peter.
The patristic testimony may be regarded as summarized in the title of the work in our earliest manuscripts, namely, κατὰ Μάρκον, katá Márkon. This phrase must refer to the author, not his source of information, for then it would necessarily have been κατὰ Πέτρον, katá Pétron. This is important as throwing light on the judgment of antiquity as to the authorship of the first Gospel, which the manuscripts all entitle κατὰ Μαθθαῖον, katá Matthaı́on.

2. Internal Evidence:
The internal evidence offers much to confirm the tradition and practically nothing to the contrary. That Peter is back of it is congruous with such facts as the following:
(1) The many vivid details referred to above (III, 6) must have come from an eyewitness. The frequent use of λέγει, légei, in Mark and Matthew where Luke uses εἶπεν, eı́pen, works in the same direction.
(2) Certain awkward expressions in lists of names can best be explained as Mark's turning of Peter's original, e.g. Mar_1:29, where Peter may have said, ?We went home, James and John accompanying us.? So in Mar_1:36 (contrasted with Luke's impersonal description, Luk_4:42 f); Mar_3:16; Mar_13:3.
(3) Two passages (Mar_9:6 and Mar_11:21) describe Peter's own thought; others mention incidents which Peter would be most likely to mention: e.g. Mar_14:37 and Mar_14:66-72 (especially imperfect ἠρνεῖτα, ērneı́to); Mar_16:7; Mar_7:12-23 in view of Act_10:15).
(4) In Mar_3:7 the order of names suits Peter's Galilean standpoint rather than that of Mark in Jerusalem - Galilee, Judea, Jerusalem, Perea, Tyre, Sidon. The very artlessness of these hints is the best kind of proof that we are in touch with one who saw with his own eyes and speaks out of his own consciousness.
(5) Generally Mark, like Matthew, writes from the standpoint of the Twelve more frequently than Luke; and Mark, more frequently than Matthew, from the standpoint of the three most honored by Jesus. Compare Mar_5:37 with Mat_9:23, where Matthew makes no reference to the three; the unusual order of the names in Luke's corresponding passage (Luk_8:51) suggests that James was his ultimate source. The language of Mar_9:14 is clearly from one of the three, Luke's may be, but Matthew's is not. The contrast in this respect between the common synoptic material and Lk 9:51 through 18:14 lends weight to this consideration.
(6) The scope of the Gospel which corresponds to that outlined in Peter's address to Cornelius (Act_10:37-41).
(7) The book suits Peter's character - impressionable rather than reflective, and emotional rather than logical. To such men arguments are of minor importance. It is deeds that count (Burton, Short Intro).
It may seem to militate against all this that the three striking incidents in Peter's career narrated in Mat_14:28-33 (walking on the water), Mat_17:24-27 (tribute money), and Mat_16:16-19 (the church and the keys), should be omitted in Mark. But this is just a touch of that fine courtesy and modesty which companionship with Jesus bred. We see John in his Gospel hiding himself in a similar way. These men are more likely to mention the things that reflect discredit on themselves. It is only in Matthew's list of the Twelve that he himself is called ?the publican.? So ?Peter never appears in a separate role in Mark except to receive a rebuke? (Bacon).
As to Mark's authorship, the internal evidence appears slight. Like the others, he does not obtrude himself. Yet for that very reason what hints there are become the more impressive.
There may be something in Zahn's point that the description of John as brother of James is an unconscious betrayal of the fact that the author's own name was John. There are two other passages, however, which are clearer and which reinforce each other. The story of the youth in Mar_14:51 seems to be of a different complexion from other Gospel incidents. But if Mark himself was the youth, its presence is explained and vindicated. In that case it is likely that the Supper was celebrated in his own home and that the upper room is the same as that in Acts 12. This is favored by the fuller description of it in Mark, especially the word ?ready? - a most natural touch, the echo of the housewife's exclamation of satisfaction when everything was ready for the guests. It is made almost a certainty when we compare Mar_14:17 with the parallels in Matthew and Luke. Mat_26:20 reads: ?Now when even was come, he was sitting at meat with the twelve disciples?; Luk_22:14 : ?And when the hour was come, he sat down, and the apostles with him?; while Mark has: ?And when it was evening he cometh with the twelve.? The last represents exactly the standpoint of one in the home who sees Jesus and the Twelve approaching. (And how admirably the terms ?the twelve disciples,? ?the apostles? and ?the twelve? suit Matthew, Luke, and Mark respectively.) Such phenomena, undesigned (save by the inspiring Spirit), are just those that would not have been invented later, and become the strongest attestation of the reliability of the tradition and this historicity of the narrative. Modern views opposed to this are touched upon in what follows.

VI. Sources and Integrity.
We have seen that, according to the testimony of the Fathers, Peter's preaching and teaching are at least the main source, and that many features of the Gospel support that view. We have seen, also, subtle but weighty reasons for believing that Mark added a little himself. Need we seek further sources, or does inquiry resolve itself into an analysis of Peter's teaching?
B. Weiss believes that Mark used a document now lost containing mainly sayings of Jesus, called Logia (L) in the earlier discussions, but now commonly known as Q (Quelle). In that opinion he has recently been joined by Sanday and Streeter. Harnack, Sir John Hawkins and Wellhausen have sought to reconstruct Q on the basis of the non-Markan matter in Matthew and Luke. Allen extracts it from Matthew alone, thinking that Mark also may have drawn a few sayings from it. Some assign a distinct source for Mark 13. Streeter considers it a document written shortly after the fall of Jerusalem, incorporating a few utterances by Jesus and itself incorporated bodily by Mark. Other sources, oral or written, are postulated by Bacon for smaller portions and grouped under X. He calls the final redactor R - not Mark but a Paulinist of a radical type.
In forming a judgment much depends upon one's conception of the teaching method of Jesus and the apostles. Teaching and preaching are not synonymous terms. Matthew sums up the early ministry in Galilee under ?teaching, preaching and healing,? and gives us the substance of that teaching as it impressed itself upon him. Mark reports less of it, but speaks of it more frequently than either Matthew or Luke. Jesus evidently gave teaching a very large place, and a large proportion of the time thus spent was devoted to the special instruction of the inner circle of disciples. The range of that instruction was not wide. It was intensive rather than extensive. He held Himself to the vital topic of the kingdom of God. He must have gone over it again and again. He would not hesitate to repeat instructions which even chosen men found it so difficult to understand. Teaching by repetition was common then as it is now in the East. The word ?catechize? (κατηχέω, kạtēchéō) implies that, and that word is used by Paul of Jewish (Rom_2:18) and by Luke of Christian teaching (Luk_1:4). See CATECHIST.
The novelty in His teaching was not in method so much as in content, authority and accompanying miraculous power (Mar_1:27). Certainly He was far removed from vain repetition. His supreme concern was for the spirit. Just as certainly He was not concerned about a mere reputation for originality or for wealth and variety of resources. He was concerned about teaching them the truth so effectively that they would be prepared by intellectual clearness, as well as spiritual sympathy, to make it known to others. And God by His Providence, so kind to all but so often thwarted by human self-will was free to work His perfect work for Him and make all things work together for the furtherance of His purpose. Thus incidents occur, situations arise and persons of all types appear on the scene, calling forth fresh instruction, furnishing illustration and securing the presentation of truth in fullness with proper balance and emphasis and in right perspective.
Thus before His death the general character of that kingdom, its principles and prospects, were taught. That furnished the warp for the future Gospels. The essence, the substance and general form were the same for all the Twelve; but each from the standpoint of his own individually saw particular aspects and was impressed with special details. No one of them was large enough to grasp it all, for no one was so great as the Master. And it would be strange indeed, though perhaps not so strange as among us, if none of them wrote down any of it. Ramsay, Salmon and Palmer are quit justified in feeling that it may have been put in writing before the death of Jesus. It may well be that Matthew wrote it as it lay in his mind, giving us substantially Harnack's Q. John and James may have done the same and furnished Luke his main special source. But whether it was written down then or not, the main fact to be noted is that it was lodged in their minds, and that the substance was, and the details through mutual conference increasingly became, their common possession. They did not understand it all - His rising from the dead, for example. But the words were lodged in memory, and subsequent events made their meaning clear.
Then follow the great events of His death and resurrection, and for forty days in frequent appearances He taught them the things concerning the kingdom of God and expounded in all the Scriptures the things concerning Himself, especially the necessity of His death and resurrection. These furnished the woof of the future Gospels. But even yet they are not equipped for their task. So He promises them His Spirit, a main part of whose work will be to bring to their remembrance all He had said, to lead them into all the truth, and show them things to come. When He has come they will be ready to witness in power.
The apostles' conception of their task is indicated in some measure by Peter when he insisted that an indispensable qualification in a successor to Judas was that he must have been with them from the beginning to the end of Christ's ministry, and so be conversant with His words and deeds. From the day of Pentecost onward they gave themselves preeminently to teaching. The thousands converted on that day continued in the teaching of the apostles. When the trouble broke out between Hebrews and Hellenists, the Seven were appointed because the apostles could not leave the word of God to serve tables. The urgency of this business may have been one reason why they stayed in Jerusalem when persecution scattered so many of the church (Act_8:2). They were thus in close touch for years, not only through the struggle between Hebrews and Hellenists, but until the admission of the GentileCornelius and his friends by Peter had been solemnly ratified by the church in Jerusalem and possibly until the Council had declared against the contention that circumcision was necessary for salvation. During these years they had every opportunity for mutual conference, and the vital importance of the questions that arose would compel them to avail themselves of such opportunities. Their martyr-like devotion to Jesus would make them quick to challenge anything that might seem a misrepresentation of His teaching. The Acts account of their discussions at great crises proves that conclusively. To their success in training others and the accuracy of the body of catechetical instruction Luke pays fine tribute when he speaks of the ?certainty? or undoubted truth of it (Luk_1:4). Thus Jesus' post-resurrection expositions, the experience of the years and the guidance of the Spirit are the source and explanation of the apostolic presentation of the gospel.
Of that company Peter was the recognized leader, and did more than any other to determine the mold into which at least the post-resurrection teachings were cast. Luke tells us of many attempts to record them. He himself in his brief reports of Peter's addresses sketches their broad outlines. Mark, at the request of Roman Christians and with Peter's approval, undertook to give an adequate account. Two special facts influenced the result - one, the character of the people for whom he wrote; the other, the existence (as we may assume) of Matthew's Q. It would be natural for him to supplement rather than duplicate that apostolic summary. Moreover, since Q presented mainly the ethical or law side of Christianity the supplement would naturally present the gospel side of it - and so become its complement - while at the same time this presentation and the needs of the people for whom he specially writes make it necessary to add something from the body of catechetical material, oral or written, not included in Q, as his frequent καὶ ἔλεγεν, kaı́ élegen, seems to imply (Buckley, 152 ff). So Mk's is ?the beginning of the Gospel.? He introduces Jesus in the act of symbolically devoting Himself to that death for our sins and rising again, which constitutes the gospel and then entering upon His ministry by calling upon the people to ?repent and believe in the gospel.? The book is written from the standpoint of the resurrection, and gives the story of the passion and of the ministry in a perspective thus determined. About the same time it may be, Matthew, writing for Jewish Christians, combines this gospel side of the teaching with his own Q side of it, adding from the common stock or abridging as his purpose might suggest or space might demand. Later Luke does a similar service for Greek Christians (compare Harnack, The Twofold Gospel in the New Testament).
The only serious question about the integrity of the book concerns the last twelve verses, for a discussion of which see under III above. Some have suggested that Mar_1:1-13 is akin to Mar_16:9-20, and may have been added by the same hand. But while vocabulary and connection are main arguments against the genuineness of the latter, in both these respects Mar_1:1-13 is bound up with the main body of the book. Nor is there sufficient reason for denying Mark 13 as a true report of what Jesus said. Wendling's theory of three strata assignable to three different writers - historian, poet, and theologian - is quite overdrawn. Barring the closing verses, there is nothing which can possibly demand anything more than an earlier and a later edition by Mark himself, and the strongest point in favor of that is Luke's omission of Mk 6:45 through 8:26. But Hawkins gives other reasons for that.

VII. Date and Place of Composition.
Ancient testimony is sharply divided. The Paschal Chronicle puts it in 40 AD, and many manuscripts, both uncial and cursive (Harnack, Chronologie, 70, 124) 10 or 12 years after the Ascension. These Swete sets aside as due to the mistaken tradition that Peter began work in Rome in the 2nd year of Claudius (42 AD). Similarly he would set aside the opinion of Chrysostom (which has some manuscripts subscriptions to support it) that it was written in Alexandria, as an error growing out of the statement of Eusebius (Historia Ecclesiastica, II, 16) that Mark went to Egypt and preached there the Gospel he composed. This he does in deference to the strong body of evidence that it was written in Rome about the time of Peter's death. Still there remains a discrepancy between Irenaeus, as commonly understood, and the other Fathers. For, so understood, Irenaeus places it after the death of Peter, whereas Jerome, Epiphanius, Origen and Clement of Alexandria clearly place it within Peter's lifetime. But it does not seem necessary so to understand Irenaeus. It may be that it was composed while Peter was living, but only published after his death. Christopherson (1570 AD) had suggested that and supported it by the conjectural emendation of ἔκδοσιν, ékdosin, ?surrendering,? ?imprisonment? for ἔξοδον, éxodon, in Irenaeus. Grabe, Mill and others thought Irenaeus referred, not to Peter's death, but to his departure from Rome on further missionary tours. But if we take exodon in that sense, it is better to understand by it departure from Palestine or Syria, rather than from Rome. Irenaeus' statement that the apostles were now fully furnished for the work of evangelization (Adv. Haer., iii. 1) certainly seems to imply that they were now ready to leave Palestine; and his next statement is that Matthew and Mark wrote their respective Gospels. And Eusebius (Historia Ecclesiastica, III, 24) states explicitly that Matthew committed his Gospel to writing ?when he was about? to leave Palestine ?to go to other peoples.? The same may very possibly be true of Mark. If the fact be that Romans in Caesarea or Antioch made the request of Mark, we can easily understand how, by the time of Irenaeus, the whole incident might be transferred to Rome.
If this view be adopted, the date would probably not be before the council at Jerusalem and the events of Gal_2:11 ff. It is true the New Testament hints are that the apostles had left Jerusalem before that, but that they had gone beyond Syria is not likely. At any rate, at the time of the clash at Antioch they had not become so clear on the question touching Jews and Gentiles in the church as to be ?fully furnished for the work of universal evangelization.? But may it not be that Paul's strong statement of the seriousness of their error actually did settle those questions in the minds of the leaders? If so, and if with new vision and ardor, they turn to the work of world-wide evangelism, that would be a natural and worthy occasion for the composition of the Gospel. The place may be Caesarea or Antioch, and the date not earlier than 50 AD. This is the simplest synthesis of the ancient testimony. Modern opinion as to date has ranged more widely than the ancient. Baur and Strauss were compelled by their tendency and mythical theories to place it in the 2nd century. Recent criticism tends strongly to a date in the sixties of the 1st century, and more commonly the later sixties. This is based partly on _ hints in the Gospel itself, partly on its relation to Matthew and Luke. The hints usually adduced are Mar_2:26 and Mar_2:13. The former, representing the temple as still standing, has force only if the relative clause be Mark's explanatory addition. Mark 13 has more force because, if Jerusalem had already fallen, we might expect some recognition of the fact.
Two other slight hints may be mentioned. The omission by the synoptists of the raising of Lazarus, and of the name of Mary in connection with the anointing of Jesus argues an early date when mention of them might have been unpleasant for the family. When the Fourth Gospel was published, they may have been no longer alive. The description of John as the brother of James (Mar_5:37) may also take us back to an early date when James was the more honored of the two brothers - though the unusual order of the names may be due, as Zahn thinks, to the author's instinctively distinguishing that John from himself.
The relation of Mark to Matthew and Luke is important if the very widespread conviction of the priority of Mark be true. For the most likely date for Acts is 62 AD, as suggested by the mention of Paul's two years' residence in Rome, and Luke's Gospel is earlier than the Acts. It may well have been written at Caesarea about 60 AD; that again throws Mark back into the fifties.
The great objection to so early a date is the amount of detail given of the destruction of Jerusalem. Abbott and others have marshalled numerous other objections, but they have very little weight - most of them indeed are puerile. The real crux is that to accept an earlier date than 70 AD is to admit predictive prophecy. Yet to deny that, especially for a believer in Christ, is an unwarranted pre-judgment, and even so far to reduce it as to deny its presence in this passage is to charge Luke - a confessedly careful historian - with ascribing to Jesus statements which He never made.
The eagerness to date Matthew not earlier than 70 is due to the same feeling. But the problem here is complicated by the word ?immediately? (Mat_24:29). Some regard that as proof positive that it must have been written before the destruction of Jerusalem. Others (e.g. Allen and Plummer) feel that it absolutely forbids a date much later than 70 AD, and consider 75 AD as a limit. But is it not possible that by by εὐθέως, euthéōs (not παραχρῆμα, parachrḗma), Christ, speaking as a prophet, may have meant no more than that the next great event comparable with the epochal overthrow of Judaism would be His own return and that the Divine purpose marches straight on from the one to the other? The New Testament nowhere says that the second advent would take place within that generation. See below under ?Eschatology.? There is therefore no sufficient reason in the Olivet discourse for dating Luke or Matthew later than 60 AD, and if Mark is earlier, it goes back into the fifties.

VIII. Historicity.
Older rationalists, like Paulus, not denying Mark's authorship, regarded the miraculous elements as misconceptions of actual events. Strauss, regarding these as mythical, was compelled to postulate a 2nd-century date. When, however, the date was pushed back to the neighborhood of 70 AD, the historicity was felt to be largely established. But recently theory of ?pragmatic values? has been developed; Bacon thus states it: ?The key to all genuinely scientific appreciation of Biblical narrative ... is the recognition of motive. The motive ... is never strictly historical but always etiological and frequently apologetic....The evangelic tradition consists of so and so many anecdotes, told and retold for the purpose of explaining or defending beliefs and practices of the contemporary church? (Modern Commentary, Beginnings of Gospel Story, 9). Bacon works out the method with the result that Mark is charged again and again with historical and other blunders. This view, like Baur's tendency-theory, has elements of truth. One is that the vocabulary of a later day may be a sort of necessary translation of the original expression. But translation is neither invention nor perversion. The other is that each author has his purpose, but that simply determines his selection and arrangement of material; it neither creates nor misrepresents it if the author be honest and well informed. The word ?selection? is advisedly chosen. The evangelists did not lack material. Each of the Twelve had personal knowledge beyond the content of Q or of Mark. These represent the central orb - the one the ethical, the other the evangelic side of it - but there were rays of exceeding brightness radiating from it in all directions. Luke's introduction and John's explicit declaration attest that fact. And neither John nor Luke throws the slightest suspicion on the reliability of the material they did not use. There is no sufficient reason for charging them with misstating the facts to make a point. Bacon seems to trust any other ancient writers or even his own imagination rather than the evangelists. The test becomes altogether too subjective. Yet since Christianity is a historical revelation, perversion of history may become perversion of most vital religious teaching. In the last analysis, the critic undertakes to decide just what Jesus could or could not have done or said. The utter uncertainty of the result is seen by a comparison of Schmiedel and Bacon. The former is sure that the cry ?My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me? is one of the very few genuine sayings of Jesus; Bacon is equally sure that Jesus could not have uttered it. Bacon also charges Mark with ?immoral crudity? because in Mar_10:45 he reports Jesus as saying that He came ?to give his life a ransom for (ἀντί, antı́) many.? Thus, on two most vital matters he charges the evangelists with error because they run counter to his own religious opinions.
Plummer's remark is just (Commentary on Matthew, xxxiii): ?To decide a priori that Deity cannot become incarnate, or that incarnate Deity must exhibit such and such characteristics, is neither true philosophy nor scientific criticism.? And A.T. Robertson (?Matthew? in Bible for Home and School, 26): ?The closer we get to the historic Jesus the surer we feel that He lived and wrought as He is reported in the Synoptic Gospels.? The evangelists had opportunities to know the facts such as we have not. The whole method of their training was such as to secure accuracy. They support each other. They have given us sketches of unparalleled beauty, vigor and power, and have portrayed for us a Person moving among men absolutely without sin - a standing miracle. If we cannot trust them for the facts, there is little hope of ever getting at the facts at all.

IX. Purpose and Plan.
1. The Gospel for Romans:
Mark's purpose was to write down the Gospel as Peter had presented it to Romans, so say the Fathers, at least, and internal evidence supports them. In any additions made by himself he had the same persons in mind. That the Gospel was for Gentiles can be seen (a) from the translation of the Aramaic expressions in Mar_3:17 (Boanerges), Mar_5:41 (Talitha cumi), Mar_7:11 (Corban), Mar_10:46 (Bartimaeus), Mar_14:36 (Abba), Mar_15:22 (Golgotha); (b) in the explanation of Jewish customs in Mar_14:12 and Mar_15:42; (c) from the fact that the Law is not mentioned and the Old Testament is only once quoted in Mark's own narrative; (d) the Gentile sections, especially in Mark 6 through 8.
That it was for Romans is seen in (a) the explanation of a Greek term by a Latin in Mar_12:42; (b) the preponderance of works of power, the emphasis on authority (Mar_2:10), patience and heroic endurance (Mar_10:17 ff); (c) Mar_10:12 which forbids a practice that was not Jewish but Roman. Those who believe it was written at Rome find further hints in the mention of Rufus (Mar_15:21; compare Rom_16:13) and the resemblance between 7:1-23 and Rom 14. The Roman centurion's remark (15:39) is the Q.E.D. of the author, and bears the same relation to Mark's purpose as Joh_20:31 to John's.
But one cannot escape the feeling that we have in this Gospel the antitype of the Servant of Yahweh. A.B. Davidson (Old Testament Theology, 365) tells us that there are two great figures around which Isaiah's thoughts gather - the King and the Servant. The former rises ?to the unsurpassable height of 'God with us,' 'mighty God,' teaching that in Him God shall be wholly present with His people.? The Servant is the other. The former is depicted in Mt, who also identifies Him with the Servant (Mat_12:18 f); the latter by Mk who identifies Him with the Messianic King (Mar_11:10; Mar_14:62). Davidson summarizes the description of the Servant: ?(1) He is God's chosen; (2) He has a mission to establish judgment on the earth.... The word is His instrument and the Lord is in the Word, or rather He Himself is the impersonation of it; (3) His endowment is the Spirit and an invincible faith; (4) There is in Him a marvelous combination of greatness and lowliness; (5) There are inevitable sufferings - bearing the penalty of others' sins; (6) He thus redeems Israel and brings light to the Gentiles. (7) Israel's repentance and restoration precede that broader blessing.? It is not strange that this Servant-conception - this remarkable blend of strength and submission, achieving victory through apparent defeat - should appeal to Peter. He was himself an ardent, whole-souled man who knew both defeat and victory. Moreover, he himself had hired servants (Mar_1:20), and now for years had been a servant of Christ (compare Act_4:29). That it did appeal to him and became familiar to the early Christians can be seen from Act_3:13 and Act_4:30. In his First Epistle he has 17 references to Isaiah, 9 of which belong to the second part. Temperamentally Mark seems to have been like Peter. And his experience in a wealthy home where servants were kept (Act_12:13), and as himself hupērétēs of apostles in Christian service, fitted him both to appreciate and record the character and doings of the perfect servant - the Servant of Yahweh. For Roman Christians that heroic figure would have a peculiar fascination.

2. Plan of the Gospel:
The plan of the Gospel seems to have been influenced by this conception. Christ's kingship was apprehended by the Twelve at a comparatively early date. It was not until after the resurrection, when Jesus opened to them the Scriptures, that they saw Him as the Suffering Servant of Isa_53:1-12. That gave Peter his gospel as we have already seen, and at the same time the general lines of its presentation. We see it sketched for Romans in Acts 10. That sketch is filled in for us by Mark. So we have the following analysis:

Title: Mar_1:1
1. The Baptist preparing the way: Mar_1:2-8; compare Isa_40:3 f.
2. Devotement of Jesus to death for us and endowment by the Spirit: Mar_1:9-13; compare Isa_42:1 ff.
3. His greatness - the Galilean Ministry: Mk 1:14 through 8:30; compare Isa 43 through 52:12.
(1) In the synagogue: period of popular favor leading to break with Pharisaic Judaism: Mk 1:14 through 3:6.
(2) Outside the synagogue: parabolic teaching of the multitude, choice and training of the Twelve and their Great Confession: Mar_3:7 ff through Mar_8:30.
4. His lowliness - mainly beyond Galilee: Mar_8:31; compare Isa 52:13 through 53:9.
(1) In the north - announcement of death: Mk 8:31 through 9:29.
(2) On the way to Jerusalem and the cross - through Galilee (Mk 9:30-50), Peraea (Mk 10:1-45), Judea (Mar_10:46-52).
(3) The triumphal entry into Jerusalem (Mar_11:1-11).
(4) In Jerusalem and vicinity - opposed by the leaders (Mk 11:12 through 12:44); foretelling their doom (Mk 13); preparing for death (Mk 14:1-42); betrayed, condemned, crucified and buried in a rich man's tomb (Mar_14:43).
5. His victory - the resurrection: Mark 16; compare Isa_53:10-12. What follows in Isaiah is taken up in Acts, for the first part of which Peter or Mark may have been Luke's main source. Generally speaking the plan is chronological, but it is plain that the material is sometimes grouped according to subject-matter.
This Servant-conception may also be the real explanation of some of the striking features of this Gospel, e.g. the absence of a genealogy and any record of His early life; the frequent use of the word ?straightway?; the predominance of deeds; the Son's not knowing the day (Mar_13:32); and the abrupt ending at Mar_16:8 (see III).

X. Leading Doctrines.
1. Person of Christ:
The main one, naturally, is the Person of Christ. The thesis is that He is Messiah, Son of God, Author (Source) of the gospel. The first half of the book closes with the disciples' confession of His Messiahship; the second, with the supreme demonstration that He is Son of God. Introductory to each is the Father's declaration of Him as His Beloved Son (Mar_1:11; Mar_9:7). That the sonship is unique is indicated in Mar_12:6 and Mar_13:32. At the same time He is the Son of Man - true man (Mar_4:38; Mar_8:5; Mar_14:34); ideal man as absolutely obedient to God (Mar_10:40; Mar_14:36), and Head of humanity (Mar_2:10, Mar_2:28), their rightful Messiah or King (Mar_1:1; Mar_14:62) - yet Servant of all (Mar_10:44 f); David's Son and David's Lord (Mar_12:37). The unique Sonship is the final explanation of all else, His power, His knowledge of both present (Mar_2:5, Mar_2:8; Mar_8:17) and future (Mar_8:31; Mar_10:39; Mar_14:27; 13), superiority to all men, whether friends (Mar_1:7; Mar_9:3 ff) or foes (Mar_12:34), and to superhuman beings, whether good (Mar_13:32) or evil (Mar_1:13, Mar_1:12; Mar_3:27).

2. The Trinity:
The Father speaks in Mar_1:11; Mar_9:7; is spoken of in Mar_13:32; and spoken to in Mar_14:36. The usual distinction between Hi
International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
PRINTER 1915.

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