Wisdom
VIEW:15 DATA:01-04-2020
WISDOM.The great literary landmarks of the wisdom teaching are the Books of Proverbs, Job, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, Sirach, and the Wisdom of Solomon. This literature, in its present form at least, belongs to the latter half of the Persian period and to the Greek period of Jewish history. But behind this latest and finest product of the Hebrew mind there lay a long process of germination. In the pre-exilic history there are traces of the presence of the wisdom element from early times. This primitive wisdom was not regarded as an exclusively Israelitish possession, but was shared with other nations (1Ki_4:30-31, Gen_41:8, Jdg_5:29, Jer_10:7, Eze_27:8). In Israel it was confined neither to rank (1Ki_10:28, Deu_16:19, Job_32:9) nor to sex (2Sa_14:1 ff; 2Sa_20:22); but it was particularly characteristic of the elders (Deu_1:16, Job_12:12; Job_32:7), and in course of time seems to have given rise to a special class of teachers known as the Wise (Jer_18:18).
Early Wisdom was varied in character and of as wide a scope as the range of human activities. It thus included the most heterogeneous elements: e.g. mechanical skill (1Ki_7:14), statecraft (1Ki_5:12), financial and commercial ability (Eze_28:1-26), political trickery (1Ki_2:6), common sense and tact (2Sa_14:1-33; 2Sa_20:14-22), learning (1Ki_3:16-28), military skill and administrative ability (Isa_10:13), piety (Deu_4:6), and the creative energy of God (Jer_10:12). In short, any capacity possessed in an exceptional degree was recognized as wisdom, and was regarded as the gift of God. But there was already manifest a marked tendency to magnify the ethical and religious elements of wisdom, which later came to their full recognition.
In pre-exilic Israel, however, wisdom played a relatively small part in religion. The vital, progressive religious spirit exhausted itself in prophecy. Here was laid the foundation of all the later wisdom. Not only laid the prophets hand down the literary forms through which the sages expressed themselves, e.g. riddle (Jdg_14:14-18), fable (Jdg_9:3-15), parable (2Sa_12:1-3, Isa_5:1-5), proverb (1Sa_10:12, Jer_31:29), essay (Isa_28:23-29), lyric, address, etc., but they also wrought out certain great ideas that were presupposed in all the later wisdom. These were: (a) monotheism, which found free course in Deuteronomy, Jeremiah, and Deutero-Isaiah; (b) individualism, or the responsibility of the individual before God for his own sins and for the sins of no one elsethe great message of Ezekiel; and (c) the insistence of God upon right character as the only passport to His favoura truth proclaimed by all the great prophets. With the fall of Jerusalem, however, and the destruction of the Jewish State, the knell of prophecy was sounded; the responsibility for shaping the religious destiny of Israel now fell into the hands of the priests and sages.
The priest responded to the call first, but sought to heal the wounds of Israel lightly, by purification and elaboration of the ritual. The true heir of the prophet was the sage. He found himself confronted with a new world; it was his to interpret it religiously. The old world-view of the prophet was no longer tenable. New problems were calling for solution and old problems becoming ever more pressing. The task of the sage was to adjust the truths left to him by the prophets to the new situation. It was his to find the place of religion in that situation and to make it the dominant element therein. The greatest sources of danger to true religion were: (a) an orthodoxy which held the ancient traditions inviolable and refused to see the facts of the present (b) the scepticism and discouragement arising out of the miseries of the time which seemed to deny the justice and goodness of God; and (c) the inroads of Greek civilization which seemed to threaten the whole fabric of Judaism. Indeed, the sages themselves did not wholly escape being influenced by these tendencies: witness the orthodoxy of the bulk of the Book of Proverbs, the scepticism of Ecclesiastes, and the Greek elements in the Wisdom of Solomon. To these conditions the sages, each in his own way, addressed their message.
The writers of Proverbs, for the most part, stand firmly upon the old paths; in the midst of mental and moral chaos and flux they insist upon adherence to the old standards of truth and goodness, and they promise success to all who heed their instruction. For them prosperity is the proof of piety. This is the old prophetic recipe for national success made operative in the lives of individuals. Through it the sages inform all the ordinary processes of common everyday life with religious meaning. Their philosophy of life is simple, but shallow. They fail to realize that the reward of piety is not in the market-place, but in the soul.
The weakness of this traditional position is exposed by the Book of Job, which points out the fact that the righteous man is often the most sorely afflicted, and seeks to reconcile this fact with belief in the justice and goodness of God. But no solution of the age-long problem of suffering is provided: the sufferer is rather bidden to take refuge in his faith in Gods goodness and wisdom, and to realize that, just as the mysteries of Gods visible universe elude his knowledge, so also is it futile for him to attempt to penetrate the greater mysteries of Gods providence. Let him be content with God Himself as his portion.
Song of Songs illustrates the humanity of the sages. It concerns itself with the greatest of all human passionslove. Whether to be interpreted as a drama or as a collection of lyrics such as were sung at weddings in Syria, it extols the nobility and loyalty of true love. In a period when the licentious customs of the pagan world were finding eager acceptance in Judah, such a powerful and beautiful vindication of the character of unselfish love was urgently needed, and was calculated to play an important part in the preservation of true religion.
Ecclesiastes is the product of many minds, with more or less conflicting views. But they are all concerned with the problem of practical scepticism: Does God care for truth and goodness? Is there any religious meaning in the universe? The heart of the book meets this question fairly and squarely. The iron has entered the authors own soul. He desires to help those in the same situation with himself. He would give doubting, faltering souls a basis for faith. Recognizing and giving full weight to the many difficulties that beset the religious point of view and tend to drive men to despair, he holds fast to his belief in Gods loving care, and therefore counsels his fellows to put on a cheerful courage and perform their allotted tasks with joy. This is the only way to make life worth living, and worth living to the full.
Sirach and Wisdom of Solomon are both products of the life and death struggle between Judaism and Greek thought. The author of the former is hospitable to Greek social life, but rigid in his adherence to the old Hebrew ideals of morals and religion. He seeks to arouse loyalty to and enthusiasm for these in the hearts of the Jews, who are in constant danger of yielding to the seductive and powerful influences of Greece. The same purpose animates the author of the Wisdom of Solomon. But he is more liberal in his attitude to foreign influences. He welcomes truth from any direction, and therefore does not hesitate to incorporate Greek elements in his fundamentally Hebraic view of life and duty. He thus enriches the conception of wisdom from every source, and seeks to show that this Hebrew ideal is immeasurably superior to the boasted Greek sophia.
Hebrew wisdom by its very nature could have no fellowship with philosophy. The aims and methods of the two were fundamentally different. In the words of Bishop Westcott, the axioms of the one are the conclusions of the other. For philosophy, God is the conclusion; for wisdom, He is the major premise. Philosophers have ever been seeking after God if haply they might find him. The mind of the sage was saturated with the thought of God. Philosophy starts with the world as it is, and seeks to find room for God in it; wisdom started with God and sought to explain the world in terms of God. Wisdom, furthermore, was practical and moral; philosophy was speculative and metaphysical. The interests of wisdom were intensely human. They were concerned with living questions and concrete issues. The problems of the sage were surcharged with emotion; they were the outcome of troubled feelings and perturbed will; only in slight measure were they the product of the intellect. It is not surprising, therefore, that wisdom presents no carefully developed system of thought. The heart knows no logic. Wisdom cares little for a plan of the universe; It leaves all such matters to God. It seeks only to enable men to love and trust God and to walk in His ways.
The Hebrew conception of wisdom developed along two lines. Wisdom had its human and its Divine aspects. In so far as it was human, it devoted itself to the consideration of the great problems of life. It was identified with knowledge of the laws and principles, observance of which leads to the successful life. These were all summarized in the formula, the fear of the Lord. Later in the history of the idea, this subjective experience was externalized and objectified and, under the growing influence of the priestly ritual, wisdom came to be defined as observance of the Mosaic Law (Sir_19:20-24; Sir_24:23).
On its Divine side, wisdom was at first conceived of as an attribute of God which He generously shared with men. Then, as the conception of God grew broader and deeper, large areas of wisdom were marked off as inaccessible to man, and known only to God (Job_28:1-28). Still further, wisdom was personified and represented as the companion of God in all His creative activities (Pro_8:22-31); and was, at last, under the influence of Greek thought, personalized, or hypostatized, and made to function as an intermediary between man and God, carrying out His beneficent purposes towards the righteous (Wis_8:1; Wis_8:3-4; Wis_9:4; Wis_9:9; Wis_9:11; Wis_9:18; Wis_10:1; Wis_10:4).
Upon the whole, the wisdom element must be considered the noblest expression of the Hebrew spirit. It was in large part the response of Judaism to the influx of Western civilization. It demonstrated irrefutably the vitality of the Hebrew religion. When the forms and institutions in which Hebrew idealism had clothed itself were shattered beyond restoration, wisdom furnished new channels for the expression of the ideal, and kept the passion for righteousness and truth burning. When Judaism was brought face to face with the Gentile world on every hand, wisdom furnished it with a cosmopolitan message. Nationalistic, particularistic, transitory elements were discarded, and emphasis was laid upon the great fundamental concepts of religion adapted to the needs of all men everywhere. Wisdom thus became of the greatest importance in the preparation for Christianity, the universal religion.
John Merlin Powis Smith.
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible
Edited by James Hastings, D.D. Published in 1909
is put for that prudence and discretion which enables a man to perceive that which is fit to be done, according to the circumstances of time, place, persons, manners, and end of doing, Ecc_2:13-14. It was this sort of wisdom that Solomon intreated of God with so much earnestness, and which God granted him with such divine liberality, 1Ki_3:9; 1Ki_3:12; 1Ki_3:28. It also signifies quickness of invention, and dexterity in the execution of several works, which require not so much strength of body, as industry, and labour of the mind. For example, God told Moses, Exo_31:3, that he had filled Bezaleel and Aholiab with wisdom, and understanding, and knowledge, to invent and perform several sorts of work for completing the tabernacle. It is used for craft, cunning, and stratagem, and that whether good or evil. Thus it is said by Moses, that Pharaoh dealt wisely with the Israelites, when he opposed them in Egypt, Exo_1:10; it is observed of Jonadab; the friend of Ammon, and nephew of David, that he was very wise, that is, very subtle and crafty, 2Sa_13:3; and Job_5:13, says, that God taketh the wine in their own craftiness. Wisdom means also doctrine, learning, and experience: With the ancient is wisdom, and in length of days understanding, Job_12:12. It is put for true piety, or the fear of God, which is spiritual wisdom: So teach us to number our days, that we may apply or hearts unto wisdom, Psa_90:12; The fear of the Lord that is wisdom, Job_28:28. Wisdom is put for the eternal Wisdom, the Word of God. It was by wisdom that God established the heavens, and founded the earth, Pro_3:19. How magnificently does Solomon describe the primeval birth of the eternal Son of God, under the character of Wisdom personified; to which so many references and allusions are to be found in the Old and New Testament! The Lord possessed me in the beginning of his way, before his works of old. I was set up from everlasting, from the beginning, or ever the earth was. When there were no depths, I was brought forth; when there were no fountains abounding with water. Before the mountains were settled, before the hills was I brought forth,
Pro_8:22-25. The apocryphal book of Wisdom introduces, by a reference to this passage, the following admirable invocation, Wis_9:9-10 :
O send forth wisdom, out of thy holy heavens, Even from the throne of thy glory;
That being present she may labour with me, That I may know what is pleasing in thy sight!
And our Lord assumes the title of Wisdom, Luk_11:49; Mat_23:34; and declares that wisdom shall be justified of all her children,
Mat_11:19; Luk_7:35.
Biblical and Theological Dictionary by Richard Watson
PRINTER 1849.
One of Gods desires for humankind is that people learn and develop practical wisdom, so that they might live intelligently and honestly. In this way their lives will be useful, bringing pleasure to God and benefits to themselves and others (Pro_1:2-7; Pro_2:7-11; Eph_5:15-16).
Practical and God-centred
The wisdom that the Bible encourages is concerned with the practical affairs of everyday living rather than with philosophical theories. People live in a real world and have to deal with real people (Deu_1:13-15; Deu_34:9; 1Ki_3:9; Act_6:3; Act_7:10). The basis of that wisdom, however, is not human cleverness but obedient reverence for God. God is the source of true wisdom and he gives it to those who seek it (Pro_1:7; Pro_2:6; Pro_9:10; Dan_2:20; Rom_16:27; 1Co_1:30; Jam_1:5-8).
Without such reverence, wisdom may be selfish and worldly, characterized by ungodly attitudes such as jealousy and deceit. Godly wisdom, by contrast, is characterized by humility, uprightness and a concern for others (Pro_8:12-16; Pro_10:8; Pro_11:2; Isa_5:21; Jam_3:13-18).
This godly wisdom is available to all who are prepared to leave the folly of their self-centred ways and accept it from God (Pro_1:20-23; Pro_8:1-6; Pro_9:1-6). It will enable them to overcome the temptations of life (Pro_6:23-27). But if they refuse it, they will inevitably bring upon themselves disappointment, shame and despair (Pro_1:20; Pro_1:24-26; Pro_5:11-13; Pro_7:1-23; Ecc_10:1-3).
In Old Testament times the chief teachers of this practical wisdom were people known as the wise (Jer_18:18). Though different from priests and prophets, these teachers of wisdom were godly men who sought to persuade people by giving practical advice based on experience (1Ki_4:30-31; Pro_25:1; Pro_31:1; Ecc_12:9-10).
The wisdom teachers knew that the average person had enough common sense to recognize the wisdom of the instruction. Sometimes they taught by means of short, easily remembered statements such as those collected in the biblical book of Proverbs. Other times they taught by arguments and debates, such as those recorded in the books of Job and Ecclesiastes and in certain psalms. (For details see WISDOM LITERATURE.)
However, the wisdom teachers never forgot that true wisdom was not something they themselves invented. Wisdom existed long before the creation of the human race. In fact, it was through wisdom that God created the human race, and it is through wisdom that human beings can now live a meaningful life (Pro_8:12-31).
Gods wisdom and human wisdom
Although God is the source of any wisdom that people possess, their wisdom is still limited. Gods wisdom is not. It is infinite and therefore is beyond human understanding (Isa_40:28; Rom_11:33-34). In his wisdom God created the universe, and by his wisdom he governs it (Psa_104:24; Pro_3:19; Rev_7:12). His plan of salvation for his sinful creatures demonstrates to people and angels his unsearchable wisdom (Rom_11:33; Eph_3:10).
The wisdom of God in salvation was expressed in Jesus Christ, both in his life and in his death (Mat_12:42; Mat_13:54; 1Co_1:23-24; 1Co_1:30; Col_2:3). Again the wisdom was concerned not with philosophical notions but with practical action. Jesus died for sinful people so that they might be saved. To those who refuse to believe, salvation through Jesus death on the cross seems foolish. Actually, they are the ones who are foolish, for they reject what God in his wisdom has done, and try by their own misguided wisdom to save themselves (1Co_1:18-25). People may think they are wise, but they must humble themselves and trust in Gods wisdom if they are to be saved (1Co_3:18-20).
Because salvation depends on humble trust in God and not on human wisdom, true preachers of the gospel will not try to impress their hearers with their wisdom. Rather they will command people to repent of their sins and trust in the death of Jesus Christ for their salvation (1Co_2:1-5).
Once people have repented and believed, they must make every effort to learn more of God. Then they will begin to grow in true wisdom. This wisdom is not the proud and worldly kind that prevents people from trusting in God, but is a new wisdom based on the character of God who gives it (1Co_2:6-7; Eph_5:15; Col_1:28). Only as believers increase in the knowledge of God and his Word can their wisdom develop and be of use to God, to themselves and to others (Psa_90:12; Dan_12:3; Eph_1:9; Eph_1:17-19; Col_1:9-10; Col_3:16).
Bridgeway Bible Dictionary by Don Fleming
PRINTER 1990.
wiz?dum:
1. Linguistic
2. History
3. Religious Basis
4. Ideals
5. Teaching of Christ
6. Remainder of the New Testament
(1) James
(2) Paul
7. Hypostasis
LITERATURE
1. Linguistic:
In the Revised Version (British and American) the noun ?wisdom? and its corresponding adjective and verb (?be wise,? ?act wisely,? etc.) represent a variety of Hebrew words: בּין, bı̄n (בּינה, bı̄nāh, and in the English Revised Version תּבוּנה, tebūnāh), שׂכל, sākhal (שׂכל, sēkhel, שׂכל, sekhel), לב, lēbh (and in the English Revised Version לבב, lābhabh), תּוּשׁיּה, tūshı̄yāh (and in the English Revised Version טעם, ṭe‛ēm), ערמה, ‛ormāh, פּקּח, piḳḳēaḥ. None of these, however, is of very frequent occurrence and by far the most common group is the verb חכם, ḥākham, with the adjective חכם, ḥākhām, and the nouns חכמה, ḥokhmāh, ḥokhmoth, with something over 300 occurrences in the Old Testament (of which rather more than half are in Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes). Ḥokhmāh, accordingly, may be treated as the Hebrew equivalent for the English ?wisdom,? but none the less the two words do not quite correspond. For ḥokhmāh may be used of simple technical skill (Exo_28:3; Exo_35:25, etc.; compare The Wisdom of Solomon 14:2; Sirach 38:31; note that the English Versions of the Bible gives a false impression in such passages), of military ability (Isa_10:13), of the intelligence of the lower animals (Pro_30:24), of shrewdness applied to vicious (2Sa_13:3) or cruel (1Ki_2:9 Hebrew) ends, etc. Obviously no one English word will cover all these different uses, but the general meaning is clear enough - ?the art of reaching one's end by the use of the right means? (Smend). Predominantly the ?wisdom? thought of is that which comes through experience, and the ?wise man? is at his best in old age (Job_12:12; Job_15:10; Pro_16:31; Sirach 6:34; 8:9; 25:3-6, etc.; contrast Job_32:9; Ecc_4:13; The Wisdom of Solomon 4:9; Sirach 25:2). And in religion the ?wise man? is he who gives to the things of God the same acuteness that other men give to worldly affairs (Luk_16:8). He is distinguished from the prophets as not having personal inspiration, from the priestly school as not laying primary stress on the cult, and from the scribes as not devoted simply to the study of the sacred writings. But, in the word by itself, a ?wise man? need not in any way be a religious man.
In the Revised Version (British and American) Apocrypha and New Testament the words ?wisdom,? ?wise,? ?act wisely,? etc., are always translations of σοφός, sophós, or φρόμινος, phrónimos, or of their cognates. For ?wisdom,? however, σοφία, sophı́a is in almost every case the original word, the sole exception in the New Testament being Luk_1:17 (φρόνησις, phrónēsis). See also PRUDENCE.
2. History:
(1) In the prophetic period, indeed, ?wise? generally has an irreligious connotation. Israel was fully sensible that her culture was beneath that of the surrounding nations, but thought of this as the reverse of defect. Intellectual power without moral control was the very fruit of the forbidden tree (Gen_3:5), and ?wisdom? was essentially a heathen quality (Isa_10:13; Isa_19:12; Isa_47:10; Eze_28:3-5; Zec_9:2; specifically Edomite in Jer_49:7; Oba_1:8; contrast Baruch 3:22, 23) that deserved only denunciation (Isa_5:21; Isa_29:14; Jer_4:22; Jer_9:23; Jer_18:18, etc.). Certainly at this time Israel was endeavoring to acquire a culture of her own, and there is no reason to question that Solomon had given it a powerful stimulus (1Ki_4:29-34). But the times were too distracted and the moral problems too imperative to allow the more spiritually-minded any opportunity to cultivate secular learning, so that ?wisdom? in Israel took on the unpleasant connotation of the quality of the shrewd court counselors, with their half-heathen advice (Isa_28:14-22, etc.). And the associations of the word with true religion are very few (Deu_4:6; Jer_8:8), while Deu_32:6; Jer_4:22; Jer_8:9 have a satirical sound - 'what men call ?wisdom? is really folly!' So, no matter how much material may have gathered during this period (see PROVERBS), it is to the post-exilic community that we are to look for the formation of body of Wisdom literature really associated with Israel's religion.
(2) The factors that produced it were partly the same as those that produced scribism (see SCRIBE). Life in Palestine was lived only on the sufferance of foreigners and must have been dreary in the extreme. Under the firm hand of Persia there were no political questions, and in later times the nation was too weak to play any part in the conflicts between Antioch and Alexandria. Prophecy had about disappeared, fulfillment of the Messianic hope seemed too far off to affect thought deeply, and the conditions were not yet ripe that produced the later flame of apocalyptic enthusiasm. Nor were there vital religious problems within the nation, now that the fight against idolatry had been won and the ritual reforms established. Artistic pursuits were forbidden (compare especially The Wisdom of Solomon 15:4-6), and the Jewish temperament was not of a kind that could produce a speculative philosophy (note the sharp polemic against metaphysics, etc., in Sirach 3:21-24). It was in this period, to be sure, that Jewish commercial genius began to assert itself, but there was no satisfaction in this for the more spiritually-minded (Sirach 26:29). So, on the one hand, men were thrown back on the records of the past (scribism), while on the other the problems of religion and life were studied through sharp observation of Nature and of mankind. And the recorded results of the latter method form the Wisdom literature.
(3) In this are included Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes, with certain psalms (notably Psa_19:1-14; 37; 104; 107; 147; Psa_148:1-14); in the Apocrypha must be added Sirach and Wisdom, with part of Baruch; while of the other writings of the period parts of Philo, 4 Maccabees, and the Abikar legend belong here also. How far foreign influence was at work it is hard to say. Egypt had a Wisdom literature of her own (see EGYPT) that must have been known to some degree in Palestine, while Babylonia and Persia could? not have been entirely without effect - but no specific dependence can be shown in any of these cases. For Greece the case is clearer, and Greek influence is obvious in Wisdom, despite the particularistic smugness of the author. But there was vitality enough in Judaism to explain the whole movement without recourse to outside influences, and, in any case, it is most arbitrary and untrue to attribute all the Wisdom speculation to Greek forces (as, e.g., does Siegfried, HDB).
3. Religious Basis:
The following characteristics are typical of the group: (1) The premises are universal. The writers draw from life wherever found, admitting that in some things Israel may learn from other nations. The Proverbs of Lemuel are referred explicitly to a non-Jewish author (Pro_31:1 the Revised Version margin), and Sirach recommends foreign travel to his students (34:10, 11; 39:4). Indeed, all the princes of the earth rule through wisdom (Pro_8:16; compare Ecc_9:15). And even some real knowledge of God can be obtained by all men through the study of natural phenomena (Psa_19:1; Sirach 16:29 through 17:14; 42:15 through 43:33; The Wisdom of Solomon 13:2, 9; compare Rom_1:20).
(2) But some of the writers dissent here (Job_28:28; Job_11:7; Ecc_2:11; Ecc_8:16, Ecc_8:17; Ecc_11:5; The Wisdom of Solomon 9:13(?)). And in any case this wisdom needs God's explicit grace for its cultivation (Sirach 51:13-22; The Wisdom of Solomon 7:7; 8:21), and when man trusts simply to his own attainments he is bound to go wrong (Pro_3:5-7; Pro_19:21; Pro_21:30; Pro_28:11; Sirach 3:24; 5:2, 3; 6:2; 10:12; Baruch 3:15-28). True wisdom must center about God (Pro_15:33; Pro_19:20 f), starting from Him (Pro_1:7; Pro_9:10; Psa_111:10; Sirach 21:11; Job_28:28) and ending in Him (Pro_2:5); compare especially the beautiful passage Sirach 1:14-20. But the religious attitude is far from being the whole of Wisdom. The course is very difficult (Pro_2:4 f; Pro_4:7; Sirach 4:17; 14:22, 23; The Wisdom of Solomon 1:5; 17:1); continual attention must be given every department of life, and man is never done learning (Pro_9:9; Sirach 6:18; Ecc_4:13).
(3) The attitude toward the written Law varies. In Ecclesiastes, Job and Proverbs it is hardly mentioned (Pro_28:7-9 (?); Pro_29:18 (?)). Wisdom, as a special pamphlet against idolatry, has little occasion for specific reference, but its high estimate of the Law is clear enough (The Wisdom of Solomon 2:12-15; 18:9). Sirach, especially, can find no terms high enough for the praise of the Law (especially Sirach 24; 36; compare 9:15; 21:11, etc.), and he identifies the Law with Wisdom (24:23-25) and claims the prophets as Wisdom teachers (44:3, 4). Yet this perverse identification betrays the fact that Sirach's interest is not derived from a real study of the Law; the Wisdom that was so precious to him must be in the sacred books! Compare Baruch 4:1 (rather more sincere).
(4) The attitude toward the temple-worship is much the same. The rites are approved (Pro_3:9; Sirach 35:4-8; 38:11; Sirach seems to have an especial interest in the priesthood, 7:29-33; 50:5-21), but the writers clearly have no theory of sacrifice that they can utilize for practical purposes. And for sacrifice (and even prayer, Pro_28:9) as a substitute for righteousness no condemnation is too strong (Pro_7:14; Pro_15:8; Pro_20:25; Pro_21:3, Pro_21:17; Sirach 34:18-26; 35:1-3, 12; Eccl (Ecc_5:1).
(5) An outlook on life beyond the grave is notably absent in the Wisdom literature. Wisdom is the only exception (The Wisdom of Solomon 3:1, etc.), but Greek influence in Wisdom is perfectly certain. In Job there are expressions of confidence (Job_14:13-15; Job_19:25-29), but these do not determine the main argument of the book. Proverbs does not raise the question, while Ecclesiastes and Sirach categorically deny immortality (Ecc_9:2-10; Sirach 14:16; 17:27, 28; 30:4; note that the Revised Version (British and American) in Sirach 7:17; 48:11 is based on a glossed text; compare the Hebrew). Even the Messianic hope of the nation is in the background in Prov (Pro_2:21, Pro_2:22 (?)), and it is altogether absent in Job and Ecclesiastes. To Sirach (35:19; 36:11-14; 47:22) and Wisdom (3:8; 5:16-23) it is important, however, but not even these works have anything to say of a personal Messiah (Sirach 47:22 (?)).
(6) That in all the literature the individual is the center of interest need not be said. But this individualism, when combined with the weak eschatology, brought dire confusion into the doctrine of retribution (see SIN). Sirach stands squarely by the old doctrine of retribution in this life: if at no other time, a man's sins will be punished on his deathbed (1:13; 11:26). Neither Job nor Ecclesiastes, however, are content with this solution. The latter leaves the problem entirely unsolved (Ecc_8:14, etc.), while the former commends it to God's unsearchable ways.
4. Ideals:
The basis of the Wisdom method may be described then as that of a ?natural? religion respecting revelation, but not making much use of it. So the ideal is a man who believes in God and who endeavors to live according to a prudence taught by observation of this world's laws, with due respect, however, to Israel's traditional observances.
(1) From many standpoints the resulting character is worthy of admiration. The man was intelligent, earnest, and hard-working (Proverbs has a particular contempt for the ?sluggard?; and compare Ecc_9:10). Lying and injustice are denounced on almost every page of the literature, and unceasing emphasis is laid on the necessity for benevolence (Psa_37:21; Psa_112:5, Psa_112:9; Job_22:7; Job_31:16-20; Pro_3:27, Pro_3:28; Pro_14:31; Pro_21:13; Pro_22:9; Ecc_11:1; Sirach 4:16; 7:34, 35; 29:11-13; 40:24, etc.). All of the writers feel that life is worth the living - at their most pessimistic moments the writers of Job and Ecclesiastes find attraction in the contemplation of the world. In Proverbs and Sirach the outlook is even buoyant, Sirach in especial being far from indifferent to the good things of life (30:23-25; 31:27; compare Ecc_2:24 and contrast The Wisdom of Solomon 2:6-9).
(2) The faults of the Wisdom ideal are the faults of the postulates. The man is always self-conscious and self-centered. All intense enthusiasms are repressed, as likely to prove entangling (Ecc_7:16, Ecc_7:17 is the most extreme case), and the individual is always calculating (Sirach 38:17), even among his friends (Sirach 6:13; Pro_25:17) and in his family (Sirach 33:19-23). Benevolence itself is to be exercised circumspectly (Pro_6:1-5; Pro_20:16; Sirach 12:5-7; 29:18), and Sirach, in particular, is very far from feeling an obligation to love all men (25:7; 27:24; 30:6; 50:25, 26). So ?right? and ?wrong? become confused with ?advantage? and ?disadvantage.? Not only is adultery wrong (Pro_2:17; Sirach 23:23), but the injured husband is a dangerous enemy (Pro_5:9-11, Pro_5:14; Pro_6:34, Pro_6:35; Sirach 23:21). As a resuit the ?moral perspective? is affected. With some of the finest moral observations in Proverbs and Sirach are combined instructions as to table manners (Pro_23:1-3; Sirach 31:12-18) and merely humorous observations (Pro_20:14), while such passages as Pro_22:22-28 and Sirach 41:17-24 contain extraordinary conglomerations of disparate motives.
(3) So hope of earthly recompense becomes a very explicit motive (Pro_3:10; Pro_11:25, etc.; The Wisdom of Solomon 7:8-12 is the best statement on the other side). Even though riches are nothing in themselves (Pro_10:2; Pro_11:28; Pro_23:4, Pro_23:5; Pro_28:11; Ecc_5:13; Sirach 11:19; 31:5-7; all the literature denounces the unrighteous rich), yet Wisdom is to be desired as bringing not only righteousness but riches also (Pro_8:21; Pro_11:25; Pro_13:18; Sirach 4:15; 20:27, 28; The Wisdom of Solomon 6:21). This same desire for advantage gives an unpleasant turn to many of the precepts which otherwise would touch the highest point; perhaps Pro_24:17, Pro_24:18 is the most extreme case: ?Rejoice not when thine enemy falleth,... lest Yahweh ... turn away his wrath from him? (!)
(4) But probably the most serious fault was that the Wisdom method tended to produce a religious aristocracy (Sirach 6:22, etc.). It was not enough that the heart and will should be right, for a long course of almost technical training was needed (the ?house of instruction? in Sirach 51:23 is probably the school; compare Pro_9:4). The uninstructed or ?simple? (Pro_1:22, etc.) were grouped quite simply with the ?sinners?; knowledge was virtue and ignorance was vice. Doubtless Wisdom cried in the streets (Pro_1:20, Pro_1:21; Pro_8:1-13; Pro_9:1-6, almost certainly a reference to the canvassing efforts of the teachers for pupils), but only men of ability and leisure could obey the call to learn. And despite all that is said in praise of manual labor (Pro_12:11; Pro_24:27; Pro_28:19; Sirach 7:15; 38:31, 32, 34), Sirach is merely frank when he says explicitly (38:25-34) that Wisdom cannot be for artisans (a carpenter as Messiah evidently would have been unthinkable to Sirach; Mar_6:3). Scribism was at work along the same lines of development, and the final union of the Wisdom method with the scribal produced a class who called the common people accursed (Joh_7:49).
5. Teaching of Christ:
The statement of the methods and ideals of the Wisdom school is also virtually a statement of our Lord's attitude toward it and an explanation of why much of His teaching took the form it did. As to the universality of the premises He was at one with the Wisdom writers, one great reason for the universality of the appeal of His teaching. Almost everything in the life of the time, from the lily of the field to the king on his throne, contributed its quota to His illustrations. And from the Wisdom method also the form of His teaching - the concise, antithetical saying that sticks in the memory - was derived to some degree. (Of all the sayings of Christ, perhaps Luk_14:8-10 - a quotation of Pro_25:6, Pro_25:7 - comes nearest to the pure Wisdom type.) In common with the Wisdom writers, also, is the cheerful outlook, despite the continual prospect of the Passion, and we must never forget that all morbid asceticism was entirely foreign to Him (Luk_7:34 parallel Mat_11:19). With the self-conscious, calculating product of the Wisdom method, however, He had no patience. Give freely, give as the Father giveth, without regard to self, in no way seeking a reward, is the burden of His teaching, and such a passage as Luk_6:27-38 seems to have been aimed at the head of such writers as Sirach. The attack on the religious aristocracy is too familiar to need recapitulation. Men by continual exercise of worldly prudence could make themselves as impervious to His teaching as by obstinate adherence to a scribal tradition, while His message was for all men on the sole basis of a desire for righteousness on their part. This was the true Wisdom, fully justified of her children (Luk_7:35; compare Mat_11:19), while, as touching the other ?Wisdom,? Christ could give thanks that God had seen fit to hide His mysteries from the wise and prudent and reveal them unto ?babes? (Luk_10:21 parallel Mat_11:25).
6. Remainder of the New Testament:
(1) James
The remainder of the New Testament, despite many occurrences of the words ?wise,? ?wisdom,? etc., contains very little that is really relevant to the technical sense of the words. The one notable exception is James, which has even been classed as ?Wisdom literature,? and with some justice. For James has the same appeal to observation of Nature (Jam_1:11; Jam_3:3-6, Jam_3:11, Jam_3:12; Jam_5:7, etc.), the same observation of human life (Jam_2:2, Jam_2:3, Jam_2:15, Jam_2:16; Jam_4:13, etc.), the same antithetical form, and even the same technical use of the word ?wisdom? (Jam_1:5; Jam_3:15-17). The fiery moral zeal, however, is far above that of the other Wisdom books, even above that of Job.
(2) Paul
Paul, on the other hand, belongs to an entirely different class, that of intense religious experience, seeking its premises in revelation. So the Wisdom method is foreign to him and the absence of Nature illustrations from his pages is notorious (even Rom_11:17 is an artificially constructed figure). Only one passage calls for special comment. The ?wisdom? against which he inveighs in 1 Cor 1-3 is not Jewish but Greek-speculation in philosophy, with studied elegance in rhetoric. Still, Jewish or Greek, the moral difficulty was the same. God's message was obscured through an overvaluation of human attainments, and so Paul's use of such Old Testament passages as Isa_29:14; Job_5:13; Psa_94:11 (in 1Co_1:19; 1Co_3:19, 1Co_3:20) is entirely lust. Against this ?wisdom? Paul sets the doctrine of the Cross, something that outraged every human system but which, all the more, taught man his entire dependence on God.
Yet Paul had a ?wisdom? of his own (1Co_2:6), that he taught to Christians of mature moral (not intellectual: 1Co_3:1-3) progress. Some commentators would treat this wisdom as doctrinal and find it in (say) Romans; more probably it is to be connected with the mystical experiences of the Christian whose life has become fully controlled by the Spirit (1Co_2:10-13). For religious progress is always accompanied by a higher insight that can never be described satisfactorily to persons without the same experience (1Co_2:14).
7. Hypostasis:
(1) One characteristic of the Wisdom writers that proved of immense significance for later (especially Christian) theology was a love of rhetorical personification of Wisdom (Pro_1:20-33; 8:1 through 9:6; Sirach 4:11-19; 6:23-31; 14:20-15:10; 24; 51:13-21; The Wisdom of Solomon 6:12 through 9:18; Baruch 3:29-32). Such personifications in themselves are not, of course, remarkable (compare e.g. the treatment of ?love? in 1Co_13:1-13), but the studied, somewhat artificial style of the Wisdom writers carries out the personification with a curious elaboration of details: Wisdom builds her house, marries her disciple, mingles wine, etc. The most famous passage is Pro_8:22-31, however. The Wisdom that is so useful to man was created before man, before, indeed, the creation of the world. When the world was formed she was in her childhood, and while God formed the world she engaged in childish play, under His shelter and to His delight. So Pro_8:30 should be rendered, as the context makes clear that 'mwn should be pointed 'āmūn, ?sheltered,? and not 'āmōn, ?as a master-workman.? And ?Wisdom? is a quality of man (Pro_8:31-36), not a quality of God.
(2) Indeed, ?Wisdom? is an attribute rarely predicated of God in the Old Testament (1Ki_3:28 Isa_10:13; Isa_31:2; Jer_10:12; Jer_51:15; compare Dan_5:11), even in the Wisdom writers (Job_5:12 ff; Job_9:4; Psa_104:24; Pro_3:19). Partly this reticence seems to be due to a feeling that God's knowledge is hardly to be compared in kind to man's, partly to the fact that to the earlier writers ?Wisdom? had a profane sound. Later works, however, have less hesitation in this regard (e.g., Sirach 42:21; Baruch 3:32, the Massoretic Text pointing and the Septuagint of Pro_8:30), so that the personifications became personifications of a quality of God. The result was one of the factors that operated to produce the doctrine of the ?Word? as it appeared in the Palestinian form. See LOGOS.
(3) In the Apocrypha, however, the most advanced step is taken in Wisdom. Wisdom is the only-begotten of God (The Wisdom of Solomon 7:22), the effulgence of eternal light (The Wisdom of Solomon 7:26; compare Heb_1:3), living with God (The Wisdom of Solomon 8:3) and sharing (?) His throne (The Wisdom of Solomon 9:4). She is the origin (or ?mother?) of all creatures (The Wisdom of Solomon 7:12; compare 8:6), continualiar active in penetrating (The Wisdom of Solomon 7:24), ordering (The Wisdom of Solomon 8:1), and renewing (The Wisdom of Solomon 7:27) all things, while carrying inspiration to all holy souls (The Wisdom of Solomon 7:23), especially to Israel (The Wisdom of Solomon 10:17, 18). Here there is no doubt that the personification has ceased to be rhetorical and has become real. Wisdom is thought of as a heavenly being, not so distinctively personal, perhaps, as an angel, but none the less far more than a mere rhetorical term; i.e. she is a ?hypostasis.?
(4) Most of Wisdom's description is simply an expansion of earlier Palestinian concepts, but it is evident that other influence has been at work also and that that influence was Greek. The writer of Wisdom was touched genuinely by the Greek philosophy, and in The Wisdom of Solomon 7:24, at any rate, his ?Wisdom? is the lógos spermatikós of the Stoics, with more than suspicions of Greek influence elsewhere in the descriptions. This combination of Jewish and Greek thought was still further elaborated by Philo - and still further confused. For Philo endeavored to operate with the Wisdom doctrine in its Palestinian form, the Wisdom doctrine into which Wisdom had already infused some Loges doctrine, and the Logos doctrine by itself, without thoroughly understanding the discordant character of his terms. The result is one of the most obscure passages in Philo's system. Sometimes, as in De Fug. section 109, chapter xx, Wisdom is the mother of the Logos, as God is its Father (compare Cherubim, sections 49, 50, chapter xiv), while, again, the relation can be inverted almost in the same context and the Logos appears as the source of Wisdom (De Fug. section 97, chapter xviii). See LOGOS.
(5) Philo's influence was incalculable, and Wisdom, as a heavenly power, plays an almost incredible role in the Gnostic speculations of the 2nd and 3rd centuries, the Gnostic work, Pistis Sophia, probably attaining the climax of unreality. The orthodox Fathers, however, naturally sought Wisdom within the Trinity, and Irenaeus made an identification with the Holy Spirit (iv. 20, 3). Tertullian, on the other hand, identified Wisdom with the Son (probably following earlier precedent) in Adv. Prax., 7, and this identification attained general acceptation. So Pro_8:22-30 became a locus classicus in the Christological controversies (an elaborate exposition in Athanaslus, Orat. ii. 16-22), and persisted as a dogmatic proof-text until a very modern period.
Literature.
The Old Testament Theologies, particularly those of Smend, edition 2 (1899), and Bertholet (1911). For the intermediate period, GJV, III, edition 4 (1909), and Boasset, Die Religion des Judentums, edition 2 (1906). Special works: Toy, ?Wisdom Literature,? EB, IV (1903); Meinhold, Die Weisheit Israels (1908); Friedlander, Griechische Philosophie im Altes Testament (1904, to be used cautiously). On Philo, compare especially Drummond, Philo Judaeus, II, 201-13 (1888). See also the articles on the various books and compare LOGOS; PHILO JUDAEUS.
International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
PRINTER 1915.
Pro_8:12 (b) It is quite clear that this word is used to describe the Lord JESUS CHRIST Himself. The description that follows in this chapter shows clearly that it is none other than our Saviour who is being described. It is a lovely picture of our wonderful Lord in His pre-natal glory.
Wilson's Dictionary of Bible Types
press 1957.
(prop. חָכְמָה, chokmah, σοφία), in a general sense, is a comprehensive knowledge of things in their proper nature and relations, together with the power of combining them in the most useful manner. Among the Hebrews, the term wisdom comprehended a wide circle of virtues and mental endowments (Exo_28:3; Exo_31:6; 1Ki_3:28; 1Ki_4:29-34), and its precise import in the Scriptures can only be ascertained by a close attention to the context. SEE FOOL.
1. It is used to express the understanding or knowledge of things, both humana and divine, chiefly in a practical and moral aspect, especially in the Psalms, Proverbs, and the book of Job. It was this wisdom which Solomon entreated and received of God, especially in a governmental sense.
2. It is put for ingenuity, skill, dexterity, as in the case of the artificers Bezaleel and Aholiab (Exo_28:3; Exodus 31, 3).
3. Wisdom is used for subtlety, craft, stratagem, whether good or evil. Pharaoh dealt wisely with the Israelites (Exodus 1, 10). Jonadab was very wise, i.e. subtle and crafty (2Sa_13:3). In Proverbs (Proverbs 14, 8) it is said, The wisdom of the prudent is to understand his way.
4. It stands for doctrine, learning, experience, sagacity (Job_12:2; Job_12:12; Job_38:37; Psa_105:22).
5. It is put sometimes for the skill or arts of magicians, wizards, fortune tellers, etc. (Gen_41:8; Exo_7:11; Ecc_9:17; Jeremiah 1, 35).
6. The wisdom or learning and philosophy current among the Greeks and Romans in the apostolic age, which stood in contrast with the simplicity of the Gospel, and tended to draw away the minds of men from divine truth, is called fleshly; wisdom(2Co_1:12), wisdom of this world(1Co_1:20; 1Co_3:19), and wisdom of men (1Co_2:5).
7. In respect to divine things, wisdom, i.e. knowledge, insight, deep understanding, is represented everywhere as a divine gift, including the idea of practical application, and is thus distinguished from theoretical knowledge (Act_6:10; 1Co_12:8; Eph_1:17; Col_1:9; 2Ti_3:15; Jam_1:5; Jam_3:13; Jam_3:15; Jam_3:17).
CYCLOPEDIA OF BIBLICAL, THEOLOGICAL AND ECCLESIASTICAL
press 1895.
Early Wisdom was varied in character and of as wide a scope as the range of human activities. It thus included the most heterogeneous elements: e.g. mechanical skill (1Ki_7:14), statecraft (1Ki_5:12), financial and commercial ability (Eze_28:1-26), political trickery (1Ki_2:6), common sense and tact (2Sa_14:1-33; 2Sa_20:14-22), learning (1Ki_3:16-28), military skill and administrative ability (Isa_10:13), piety (Deu_4:6), and the creative energy of God (Jer_10:12). In short, any capacity possessed in an exceptional degree was recognized as wisdom, and was regarded as the gift of God. But there was already manifest a marked tendency to magnify the ethical and religious elements of wisdom, which later came to their full recognition.
In pre-exilic Israel, however, wisdom played a relatively small part in religion. The vital, progressive religious spirit exhausted itself in prophecy. Here was laid the foundation of all the later wisdom. Not only laid the prophets hand down the literary forms through which the sages expressed themselves, e.g. riddle (Jdg_14:14-18), fable (Jdg_9:3-15), parable (2Sa_12:1-3, Isa_5:1-5), proverb (1Sa_10:12, Jer_31:29), essay (Isa_28:23-29), lyric, address, etc., but they also wrought out certain great ideas that were presupposed in all the later wisdom. These were: (a) monotheism, which found free course in Deuteronomy, Jeremiah, and Deutero-Isaiah; (b) individualism, or the responsibility of the individual before God for his own sins and for the sins of no one elsethe great message of Ezekiel; and (c) the insistence of God upon right character as the only passport to His favoura truth proclaimed by all the great prophets. With the fall of Jerusalem, however, and the destruction of the Jewish State, the knell of prophecy was sounded; the responsibility for shaping the religious destiny of Israel now fell into the hands of the priests and sages.
The priest responded to the call first, but sought to heal the wounds of Israel lightly, by purification and elaboration of the ritual. The true heir of the prophet was the sage. He found himself confronted with a new world; it was his to interpret it religiously. The old world-view of the prophet was no longer tenable. New problems were calling for solution and old problems becoming ever more pressing. The task of the sage was to adjust the truths left to him by the prophets to the new situation. It was his to find the place of religion in that situation and to make it the dominant element therein. The greatest sources of danger to true religion were: (a) an orthodoxy which held the ancient traditions inviolable and refused to see the facts of the present (b) the scepticism and discouragement arising out of the miseries of the time which seemed to deny the justice and goodness of God; and (c) the inroads of Greek civilization which seemed to threaten the whole fabric of Judaism. Indeed, the sages themselves did not wholly escape being influenced by these tendencies: witness the orthodoxy of the bulk of the Book of Proverbs, the scepticism of Ecclesiastes, and the Greek elements in the Wisdom of Solomon. To these conditions the sages, each in his own way, addressed their message.
The writers of Proverbs, for the most part, stand firmly upon the old paths; in the midst of mental and moral chaos and flux they insist upon adherence to the old standards of truth and goodness, and they promise success to all who heed their instruction. For them prosperity is the proof of piety. This is the old prophetic recipe for national success made operative in the lives of individuals. Through it the sages inform all the ordinary processes of common everyday life with religious meaning. Their philosophy of life is simple, but shallow. They fail to realize that the reward of piety is not in the market-place, but in the soul.
The weakness of this traditional position is exposed by the Book of Job, which points out the fact that the righteous man is often the most sorely afflicted, and seeks to reconcile this fact with belief in the justice and goodness of God. But no solution of the age-long problem of suffering is provided: the sufferer is rather bidden to take refuge in his faith in Gods goodness and wisdom, and to realize that, just as the mysteries of Gods visible universe elude his knowledge, so also is it futile for him to attempt to penetrate the greater mysteries of Gods providence. Let him be content with God Himself as his portion.
Song of Songs illustrates the humanity of the sages. It concerns itself with the greatest of all human passionslove. Whether to be interpreted as a drama or as a collection of lyrics such as were sung at weddings in Syria, it extols the nobility and loyalty of true love. In a period when the licentious customs of the pagan world were finding eager acceptance in Judah, such a powerful and beautiful vindication of the character of unselfish love was urgently needed, and was calculated to play an important part in the preservation of true religion.
Ecclesiastes is the product of many minds, with more or less conflicting views. But they are all concerned with the problem of practical scepticism: Does God care for truth and goodness? Is there any religious meaning in the universe? The heart of the book meets this question fairly and squarely. The iron has entered the authors own soul. He desires to help those in the same situation with himself. He would give doubting, faltering souls a basis for faith. Recognizing and giving full weight to the many difficulties that beset the religious point of view and tend to drive men to despair, he holds fast to his belief in Gods loving care, and therefore counsels his fellows to put on a cheerful courage and perform their allotted tasks with joy. This is the only way to make life worth living, and worth living to the full.
Sirach and Wisdom of Solomon are both products of the life and death struggle between Judaism and Greek thought. The author of the former is hospitable to Greek social life, but rigid in his adherence to the old Hebrew ideals of morals and religion. He seeks to arouse loyalty to and enthusiasm for these in the hearts of the Jews, who are in constant danger of yielding to the seductive and powerful influences of Greece. The same purpose animates the author of the Wisdom of Solomon. But he is more liberal in his attitude to foreign influences. He welcomes truth from any direction, and therefore does not hesitate to incorporate Greek elements in his fundamentally Hebraic view of life and duty. He thus enriches the conception of wisdom from every source, and seeks to show that this Hebrew ideal is immeasurably superior to the boasted Greek sophia.
Hebrew wisdom by its very nature could have no fellowship with philosophy. The aims and methods of the two were fundamentally different. In the words of Bishop Westcott, the axioms of the one are the conclusions of the other. For philosophy, God is the conclusion; for wisdom, He is the major premise. Philosophers have ever been seeking after God if haply they might find him. The mind of the sage was saturated with the thought of God. Philosophy starts with the world as it is, and seeks to find room for God in it; wisdom started with God and sought to explain the world in terms of God. Wisdom, furthermore, was practical and moral; philosophy was speculative and metaphysical. The interests of wisdom were intensely human. They were concerned with living questions and concrete issues. The problems of the sage were surcharged with emotion; they were the outcome of troubled feelings and perturbed will; only in slight measure were they the product of the intellect. It is not surprising, therefore, that wisdom presents no carefully developed system of thought. The heart knows no logic. Wisdom cares little for a plan of the universe; It leaves all such matters to God. It seeks only to enable men to love and trust God and to walk in His ways.
The Hebrew conception of wisdom developed along two lines. Wisdom had its human and its Divine aspects. In so far as it was human, it devoted itself to the consideration of the great problems of life. It was identified with knowledge of the laws and principles, observance of which leads to the successful life. These were all summarized in the formula, the fear of the Lord. Later in the history of the idea, this subjective experience was externalized and objectified and, under the growing influence of the priestly ritual, wisdom came to be defined as observance of the Mosaic Law (Sir_19:20-24; Sir_24:23).
On its Divine side, wisdom was at first conceived of as an attribute of God which He generously shared with men. Then, as the conception of God grew broader and deeper, large areas of wisdom were marked off as inaccessible to man, and known only to God (Job_28:1-28). Still further, wisdom was personified and represented as the companion of God in all His creative activities (Pro_8:22-31); and was, at last, under the influence of Greek thought, personalized, or hypostatized, and made to function as an intermediary between man and God, carrying out His beneficent purposes towards the righteous (Wis_8:1; Wis_8:3-4; Wis_9:4; Wis_9:9; Wis_9:11; Wis_9:18; Wis_10:1; Wis_10:4).
Upon the whole, the wisdom element must be considered the noblest expression of the Hebrew spirit. It was in large part the response of Judaism to the influx of Western civilization. It demonstrated irrefutably the vitality of the Hebrew religion. When the forms and institutions in which Hebrew idealism had clothed itself were shattered beyond restoration, wisdom furnished new channels for the expression of the ideal, and kept the passion for righteousness and truth burning. When Judaism was brought face to face with the Gentile world on every hand, wisdom furnished it with a cosmopolitan message. Nationalistic, particularistic, transitory elements were discarded, and emphasis was laid upon the great fundamental concepts of religion adapted to the needs of all men everywhere. Wisdom thus became of the greatest importance in the preparation for Christianity, the universal religion.
John Merlin Powis Smith.
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible
Edited by James Hastings, D.D. Published in 1909
is put for that prudence and discretion which enables a man to perceive that which is fit to be done, according to the circumstances of time, place, persons, manners, and end of doing, Ecc_2:13-14. It was this sort of wisdom that Solomon intreated of God with so much earnestness, and which God granted him with such divine liberality, 1Ki_3:9; 1Ki_3:12; 1Ki_3:28. It also signifies quickness of invention, and dexterity in the execution of several works, which require not so much strength of body, as industry, and labour of the mind. For example, God told Moses, Exo_31:3, that he had filled Bezaleel and Aholiab with wisdom, and understanding, and knowledge, to invent and perform several sorts of work for completing the tabernacle. It is used for craft, cunning, and stratagem, and that whether good or evil. Thus it is said by Moses, that Pharaoh dealt wisely with the Israelites, when he opposed them in Egypt, Exo_1:10; it is observed of Jonadab; the friend of Ammon, and nephew of David, that he was very wise, that is, very subtle and crafty, 2Sa_13:3; and Job_5:13, says, that God taketh the wine in their own craftiness. Wisdom means also doctrine, learning, and experience: With the ancient is wisdom, and in length of days understanding, Job_12:12. It is put for true piety, or the fear of God, which is spiritual wisdom: So teach us to number our days, that we may apply or hearts unto wisdom, Psa_90:12; The fear of the Lord that is wisdom, Job_28:28. Wisdom is put for the eternal Wisdom, the Word of God. It was by wisdom that God established the heavens, and founded the earth, Pro_3:19. How magnificently does Solomon describe the primeval birth of the eternal Son of God, under the character of Wisdom personified; to which so many references and allusions are to be found in the Old and New Testament! The Lord possessed me in the beginning of his way, before his works of old. I was set up from everlasting, from the beginning, or ever the earth was. When there were no depths, I was brought forth; when there were no fountains abounding with water. Before the mountains were settled, before the hills was I brought forth,
Pro_8:22-25. The apocryphal book of Wisdom introduces, by a reference to this passage, the following admirable invocation, Wis_9:9-10 :
O send forth wisdom, out of thy holy heavens, Even from the throne of thy glory;
That being present she may labour with me, That I may know what is pleasing in thy sight!
And our Lord assumes the title of Wisdom, Luk_11:49; Mat_23:34; and declares that wisdom shall be justified of all her children,
Mat_11:19; Luk_7:35.
Biblical and Theological Dictionary by Richard Watson
PRINTER 1849.
One of Gods desires for humankind is that people learn and develop practical wisdom, so that they might live intelligently and honestly. In this way their lives will be useful, bringing pleasure to God and benefits to themselves and others (Pro_1:2-7; Pro_2:7-11; Eph_5:15-16).
Practical and God-centred
The wisdom that the Bible encourages is concerned with the practical affairs of everyday living rather than with philosophical theories. People live in a real world and have to deal with real people (Deu_1:13-15; Deu_34:9; 1Ki_3:9; Act_6:3; Act_7:10). The basis of that wisdom, however, is not human cleverness but obedient reverence for God. God is the source of true wisdom and he gives it to those who seek it (Pro_1:7; Pro_2:6; Pro_9:10; Dan_2:20; Rom_16:27; 1Co_1:30; Jam_1:5-8).
Without such reverence, wisdom may be selfish and worldly, characterized by ungodly attitudes such as jealousy and deceit. Godly wisdom, by contrast, is characterized by humility, uprightness and a concern for others (Pro_8:12-16; Pro_10:8; Pro_11:2; Isa_5:21; Jam_3:13-18).
This godly wisdom is available to all who are prepared to leave the folly of their self-centred ways and accept it from God (Pro_1:20-23; Pro_8:1-6; Pro_9:1-6). It will enable them to overcome the temptations of life (Pro_6:23-27). But if they refuse it, they will inevitably bring upon themselves disappointment, shame and despair (Pro_1:20; Pro_1:24-26; Pro_5:11-13; Pro_7:1-23; Ecc_10:1-3).
In Old Testament times the chief teachers of this practical wisdom were people known as the wise (Jer_18:18). Though different from priests and prophets, these teachers of wisdom were godly men who sought to persuade people by giving practical advice based on experience (1Ki_4:30-31; Pro_25:1; Pro_31:1; Ecc_12:9-10).
The wisdom teachers knew that the average person had enough common sense to recognize the wisdom of the instruction. Sometimes they taught by means of short, easily remembered statements such as those collected in the biblical book of Proverbs. Other times they taught by arguments and debates, such as those recorded in the books of Job and Ecclesiastes and in certain psalms. (For details see WISDOM LITERATURE.)
However, the wisdom teachers never forgot that true wisdom was not something they themselves invented. Wisdom existed long before the creation of the human race. In fact, it was through wisdom that God created the human race, and it is through wisdom that human beings can now live a meaningful life (Pro_8:12-31).
Gods wisdom and human wisdom
Although God is the source of any wisdom that people possess, their wisdom is still limited. Gods wisdom is not. It is infinite and therefore is beyond human understanding (Isa_40:28; Rom_11:33-34). In his wisdom God created the universe, and by his wisdom he governs it (Psa_104:24; Pro_3:19; Rev_7:12). His plan of salvation for his sinful creatures demonstrates to people and angels his unsearchable wisdom (Rom_11:33; Eph_3:10).
The wisdom of God in salvation was expressed in Jesus Christ, both in his life and in his death (Mat_12:42; Mat_13:54; 1Co_1:23-24; 1Co_1:30; Col_2:3). Again the wisdom was concerned not with philosophical notions but with practical action. Jesus died for sinful people so that they might be saved. To those who refuse to believe, salvation through Jesus death on the cross seems foolish. Actually, they are the ones who are foolish, for they reject what God in his wisdom has done, and try by their own misguided wisdom to save themselves (1Co_1:18-25). People may think they are wise, but they must humble themselves and trust in Gods wisdom if they are to be saved (1Co_3:18-20).
Because salvation depends on humble trust in God and not on human wisdom, true preachers of the gospel will not try to impress their hearers with their wisdom. Rather they will command people to repent of their sins and trust in the death of Jesus Christ for their salvation (1Co_2:1-5).
Once people have repented and believed, they must make every effort to learn more of God. Then they will begin to grow in true wisdom. This wisdom is not the proud and worldly kind that prevents people from trusting in God, but is a new wisdom based on the character of God who gives it (1Co_2:6-7; Eph_5:15; Col_1:28). Only as believers increase in the knowledge of God and his Word can their wisdom develop and be of use to God, to themselves and to others (Psa_90:12; Dan_12:3; Eph_1:9; Eph_1:17-19; Col_1:9-10; Col_3:16).
Bridgeway Bible Dictionary by Don Fleming
PRINTER 1990.
wiz?dum:
1. Linguistic
2. History
3. Religious Basis
4. Ideals
5. Teaching of Christ
6. Remainder of the New Testament
(1) James
(2) Paul
7. Hypostasis
LITERATURE
1. Linguistic:
In the Revised Version (British and American) the noun ?wisdom? and its corresponding adjective and verb (?be wise,? ?act wisely,? etc.) represent a variety of Hebrew words: בּין, bı̄n (בּינה, bı̄nāh, and in the English Revised Version תּבוּנה, tebūnāh), שׂכל, sākhal (שׂכל, sēkhel, שׂכל, sekhel), לב, lēbh (and in the English Revised Version לבב, lābhabh), תּוּשׁיּה, tūshı̄yāh (and in the English Revised Version טעם, ṭe‛ēm), ערמה, ‛ormāh, פּקּח, piḳḳēaḥ. None of these, however, is of very frequent occurrence and by far the most common group is the verb חכם, ḥākham, with the adjective חכם, ḥākhām, and the nouns חכמה, ḥokhmāh, ḥokhmoth, with something over 300 occurrences in the Old Testament (of which rather more than half are in Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes). Ḥokhmāh, accordingly, may be treated as the Hebrew equivalent for the English ?wisdom,? but none the less the two words do not quite correspond. For ḥokhmāh may be used of simple technical skill (Exo_28:3; Exo_35:25, etc.; compare The Wisdom of Solomon 14:2; Sirach 38:31; note that the English Versions of the Bible gives a false impression in such passages), of military ability (Isa_10:13), of the intelligence of the lower animals (Pro_30:24), of shrewdness applied to vicious (2Sa_13:3) or cruel (1Ki_2:9 Hebrew) ends, etc. Obviously no one English word will cover all these different uses, but the general meaning is clear enough - ?the art of reaching one's end by the use of the right means? (Smend). Predominantly the ?wisdom? thought of is that which comes through experience, and the ?wise man? is at his best in old age (Job_12:12; Job_15:10; Pro_16:31; Sirach 6:34; 8:9; 25:3-6, etc.; contrast Job_32:9; Ecc_4:13; The Wisdom of Solomon 4:9; Sirach 25:2). And in religion the ?wise man? is he who gives to the things of God the same acuteness that other men give to worldly affairs (Luk_16:8). He is distinguished from the prophets as not having personal inspiration, from the priestly school as not laying primary stress on the cult, and from the scribes as not devoted simply to the study of the sacred writings. But, in the word by itself, a ?wise man? need not in any way be a religious man.
In the Revised Version (British and American) Apocrypha and New Testament the words ?wisdom,? ?wise,? ?act wisely,? etc., are always translations of σοφός, sophós, or φρόμινος, phrónimos, or of their cognates. For ?wisdom,? however, σοφία, sophı́a is in almost every case the original word, the sole exception in the New Testament being Luk_1:17 (φρόνησις, phrónēsis). See also PRUDENCE.
2. History:
(1) In the prophetic period, indeed, ?wise? generally has an irreligious connotation. Israel was fully sensible that her culture was beneath that of the surrounding nations, but thought of this as the reverse of defect. Intellectual power without moral control was the very fruit of the forbidden tree (Gen_3:5), and ?wisdom? was essentially a heathen quality (Isa_10:13; Isa_19:12; Isa_47:10; Eze_28:3-5; Zec_9:2; specifically Edomite in Jer_49:7; Oba_1:8; contrast Baruch 3:22, 23) that deserved only denunciation (Isa_5:21; Isa_29:14; Jer_4:22; Jer_9:23; Jer_18:18, etc.). Certainly at this time Israel was endeavoring to acquire a culture of her own, and there is no reason to question that Solomon had given it a powerful stimulus (1Ki_4:29-34). But the times were too distracted and the moral problems too imperative to allow the more spiritually-minded any opportunity to cultivate secular learning, so that ?wisdom? in Israel took on the unpleasant connotation of the quality of the shrewd court counselors, with their half-heathen advice (Isa_28:14-22, etc.). And the associations of the word with true religion are very few (Deu_4:6; Jer_8:8), while Deu_32:6; Jer_4:22; Jer_8:9 have a satirical sound - 'what men call ?wisdom? is really folly!' So, no matter how much material may have gathered during this period (see PROVERBS), it is to the post-exilic community that we are to look for the formation of body of Wisdom literature really associated with Israel's religion.
(2) The factors that produced it were partly the same as those that produced scribism (see SCRIBE). Life in Palestine was lived only on the sufferance of foreigners and must have been dreary in the extreme. Under the firm hand of Persia there were no political questions, and in later times the nation was too weak to play any part in the conflicts between Antioch and Alexandria. Prophecy had about disappeared, fulfillment of the Messianic hope seemed too far off to affect thought deeply, and the conditions were not yet ripe that produced the later flame of apocalyptic enthusiasm. Nor were there vital religious problems within the nation, now that the fight against idolatry had been won and the ritual reforms established. Artistic pursuits were forbidden (compare especially The Wisdom of Solomon 15:4-6), and the Jewish temperament was not of a kind that could produce a speculative philosophy (note the sharp polemic against metaphysics, etc., in Sirach 3:21-24). It was in this period, to be sure, that Jewish commercial genius began to assert itself, but there was no satisfaction in this for the more spiritually-minded (Sirach 26:29). So, on the one hand, men were thrown back on the records of the past (scribism), while on the other the problems of religion and life were studied through sharp observation of Nature and of mankind. And the recorded results of the latter method form the Wisdom literature.
(3) In this are included Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes, with certain psalms (notably Psa_19:1-14; 37; 104; 107; 147; Psa_148:1-14); in the Apocrypha must be added Sirach and Wisdom, with part of Baruch; while of the other writings of the period parts of Philo, 4 Maccabees, and the Abikar legend belong here also. How far foreign influence was at work it is hard to say. Egypt had a Wisdom literature of her own (see EGYPT) that must have been known to some degree in Palestine, while Babylonia and Persia could? not have been entirely without effect - but no specific dependence can be shown in any of these cases. For Greece the case is clearer, and Greek influence is obvious in Wisdom, despite the particularistic smugness of the author. But there was vitality enough in Judaism to explain the whole movement without recourse to outside influences, and, in any case, it is most arbitrary and untrue to attribute all the Wisdom speculation to Greek forces (as, e.g., does Siegfried, HDB).
3. Religious Basis:
The following characteristics are typical of the group: (1) The premises are universal. The writers draw from life wherever found, admitting that in some things Israel may learn from other nations. The Proverbs of Lemuel are referred explicitly to a non-Jewish author (Pro_31:1 the Revised Version margin), and Sirach recommends foreign travel to his students (34:10, 11; 39:4). Indeed, all the princes of the earth rule through wisdom (Pro_8:16; compare Ecc_9:15). And even some real knowledge of God can be obtained by all men through the study of natural phenomena (Psa_19:1; Sirach 16:29 through 17:14; 42:15 through 43:33; The Wisdom of Solomon 13:2, 9; compare Rom_1:20).
(2) But some of the writers dissent here (Job_28:28; Job_11:7; Ecc_2:11; Ecc_8:16, Ecc_8:17; Ecc_11:5; The Wisdom of Solomon 9:13(?)). And in any case this wisdom needs God's explicit grace for its cultivation (Sirach 51:13-22; The Wisdom of Solomon 7:7; 8:21), and when man trusts simply to his own attainments he is bound to go wrong (Pro_3:5-7; Pro_19:21; Pro_21:30; Pro_28:11; Sirach 3:24; 5:2, 3; 6:2; 10:12; Baruch 3:15-28). True wisdom must center about God (Pro_15:33; Pro_19:20 f), starting from Him (Pro_1:7; Pro_9:10; Psa_111:10; Sirach 21:11; Job_28:28) and ending in Him (Pro_2:5); compare especially the beautiful passage Sirach 1:14-20. But the religious attitude is far from being the whole of Wisdom. The course is very difficult (Pro_2:4 f; Pro_4:7; Sirach 4:17; 14:22, 23; The Wisdom of Solomon 1:5; 17:1); continual attention must be given every department of life, and man is never done learning (Pro_9:9; Sirach 6:18; Ecc_4:13).
(3) The attitude toward the written Law varies. In Ecclesiastes, Job and Proverbs it is hardly mentioned (Pro_28:7-9 (?); Pro_29:18 (?)). Wisdom, as a special pamphlet against idolatry, has little occasion for specific reference, but its high estimate of the Law is clear enough (The Wisdom of Solomon 2:12-15; 18:9). Sirach, especially, can find no terms high enough for the praise of the Law (especially Sirach 24; 36; compare 9:15; 21:11, etc.), and he identifies the Law with Wisdom (24:23-25) and claims the prophets as Wisdom teachers (44:3, 4). Yet this perverse identification betrays the fact that Sirach's interest is not derived from a real study of the Law; the Wisdom that was so precious to him must be in the sacred books! Compare Baruch 4:1 (rather more sincere).
(4) The attitude toward the temple-worship is much the same. The rites are approved (Pro_3:9; Sirach 35:4-8; 38:11; Sirach seems to have an especial interest in the priesthood, 7:29-33; 50:5-21), but the writers clearly have no theory of sacrifice that they can utilize for practical purposes. And for sacrifice (and even prayer, Pro_28:9) as a substitute for righteousness no condemnation is too strong (Pro_7:14; Pro_15:8; Pro_20:25; Pro_21:3, Pro_21:17; Sirach 34:18-26; 35:1-3, 12; Eccl (Ecc_5:1).
(5) An outlook on life beyond the grave is notably absent in the Wisdom literature. Wisdom is the only exception (The Wisdom of Solomon 3:1, etc.), but Greek influence in Wisdom is perfectly certain. In Job there are expressions of confidence (Job_14:13-15; Job_19:25-29), but these do not determine the main argument of the book. Proverbs does not raise the question, while Ecclesiastes and Sirach categorically deny immortality (Ecc_9:2-10; Sirach 14:16; 17:27, 28; 30:4; note that the Revised Version (British and American) in Sirach 7:17; 48:11 is based on a glossed text; compare the Hebrew). Even the Messianic hope of the nation is in the background in Prov (Pro_2:21, Pro_2:22 (?)), and it is altogether absent in Job and Ecclesiastes. To Sirach (35:19; 36:11-14; 47:22) and Wisdom (3:8; 5:16-23) it is important, however, but not even these works have anything to say of a personal Messiah (Sirach 47:22 (?)).
(6) That in all the literature the individual is the center of interest need not be said. But this individualism, when combined with the weak eschatology, brought dire confusion into the doctrine of retribution (see SIN). Sirach stands squarely by the old doctrine of retribution in this life: if at no other time, a man's sins will be punished on his deathbed (1:13; 11:26). Neither Job nor Ecclesiastes, however, are content with this solution. The latter leaves the problem entirely unsolved (Ecc_8:14, etc.), while the former commends it to God's unsearchable ways.
4. Ideals:
The basis of the Wisdom method may be described then as that of a ?natural? religion respecting revelation, but not making much use of it. So the ideal is a man who believes in God and who endeavors to live according to a prudence taught by observation of this world's laws, with due respect, however, to Israel's traditional observances.
(1) From many standpoints the resulting character is worthy of admiration. The man was intelligent, earnest, and hard-working (Proverbs has a particular contempt for the ?sluggard?; and compare Ecc_9:10). Lying and injustice are denounced on almost every page of the literature, and unceasing emphasis is laid on the necessity for benevolence (Psa_37:21; Psa_112:5, Psa_112:9; Job_22:7; Job_31:16-20; Pro_3:27, Pro_3:28; Pro_14:31; Pro_21:13; Pro_22:9; Ecc_11:1; Sirach 4:16; 7:34, 35; 29:11-13; 40:24, etc.). All of the writers feel that life is worth the living - at their most pessimistic moments the writers of Job and Ecclesiastes find attraction in the contemplation of the world. In Proverbs and Sirach the outlook is even buoyant, Sirach in especial being far from indifferent to the good things of life (30:23-25; 31:27; compare Ecc_2:24 and contrast The Wisdom of Solomon 2:6-9).
(2) The faults of the Wisdom ideal are the faults of the postulates. The man is always self-conscious and self-centered. All intense enthusiasms are repressed, as likely to prove entangling (Ecc_7:16, Ecc_7:17 is the most extreme case), and the individual is always calculating (Sirach 38:17), even among his friends (Sirach 6:13; Pro_25:17) and in his family (Sirach 33:19-23). Benevolence itself is to be exercised circumspectly (Pro_6:1-5; Pro_20:16; Sirach 12:5-7; 29:18), and Sirach, in particular, is very far from feeling an obligation to love all men (25:7; 27:24; 30:6; 50:25, 26). So ?right? and ?wrong? become confused with ?advantage? and ?disadvantage.? Not only is adultery wrong (Pro_2:17; Sirach 23:23), but the injured husband is a dangerous enemy (Pro_5:9-11, Pro_5:14; Pro_6:34, Pro_6:35; Sirach 23:21). As a resuit the ?moral perspective? is affected. With some of the finest moral observations in Proverbs and Sirach are combined instructions as to table manners (Pro_23:1-3; Sirach 31:12-18) and merely humorous observations (Pro_20:14), while such passages as Pro_22:22-28 and Sirach 41:17-24 contain extraordinary conglomerations of disparate motives.
(3) So hope of earthly recompense becomes a very explicit motive (Pro_3:10; Pro_11:25, etc.; The Wisdom of Solomon 7:8-12 is the best statement on the other side). Even though riches are nothing in themselves (Pro_10:2; Pro_11:28; Pro_23:4, Pro_23:5; Pro_28:11; Ecc_5:13; Sirach 11:19; 31:5-7; all the literature denounces the unrighteous rich), yet Wisdom is to be desired as bringing not only righteousness but riches also (Pro_8:21; Pro_11:25; Pro_13:18; Sirach 4:15; 20:27, 28; The Wisdom of Solomon 6:21). This same desire for advantage gives an unpleasant turn to many of the precepts which otherwise would touch the highest point; perhaps Pro_24:17, Pro_24:18 is the most extreme case: ?Rejoice not when thine enemy falleth,... lest Yahweh ... turn away his wrath from him? (!)
(4) But probably the most serious fault was that the Wisdom method tended to produce a religious aristocracy (Sirach 6:22, etc.). It was not enough that the heart and will should be right, for a long course of almost technical training was needed (the ?house of instruction? in Sirach 51:23 is probably the school; compare Pro_9:4). The uninstructed or ?simple? (Pro_1:22, etc.) were grouped quite simply with the ?sinners?; knowledge was virtue and ignorance was vice. Doubtless Wisdom cried in the streets (Pro_1:20, Pro_1:21; Pro_8:1-13; Pro_9:1-6, almost certainly a reference to the canvassing efforts of the teachers for pupils), but only men of ability and leisure could obey the call to learn. And despite all that is said in praise of manual labor (Pro_12:11; Pro_24:27; Pro_28:19; Sirach 7:15; 38:31, 32, 34), Sirach is merely frank when he says explicitly (38:25-34) that Wisdom cannot be for artisans (a carpenter as Messiah evidently would have been unthinkable to Sirach; Mar_6:3). Scribism was at work along the same lines of development, and the final union of the Wisdom method with the scribal produced a class who called the common people accursed (Joh_7:49).
5. Teaching of Christ:
The statement of the methods and ideals of the Wisdom school is also virtually a statement of our Lord's attitude toward it and an explanation of why much of His teaching took the form it did. As to the universality of the premises He was at one with the Wisdom writers, one great reason for the universality of the appeal of His teaching. Almost everything in the life of the time, from the lily of the field to the king on his throne, contributed its quota to His illustrations. And from the Wisdom method also the form of His teaching - the concise, antithetical saying that sticks in the memory - was derived to some degree. (Of all the sayings of Christ, perhaps Luk_14:8-10 - a quotation of Pro_25:6, Pro_25:7 - comes nearest to the pure Wisdom type.) In common with the Wisdom writers, also, is the cheerful outlook, despite the continual prospect of the Passion, and we must never forget that all morbid asceticism was entirely foreign to Him (Luk_7:34 parallel Mat_11:19). With the self-conscious, calculating product of the Wisdom method, however, He had no patience. Give freely, give as the Father giveth, without regard to self, in no way seeking a reward, is the burden of His teaching, and such a passage as Luk_6:27-38 seems to have been aimed at the head of such writers as Sirach. The attack on the religious aristocracy is too familiar to need recapitulation. Men by continual exercise of worldly prudence could make themselves as impervious to His teaching as by obstinate adherence to a scribal tradition, while His message was for all men on the sole basis of a desire for righteousness on their part. This was the true Wisdom, fully justified of her children (Luk_7:35; compare Mat_11:19), while, as touching the other ?Wisdom,? Christ could give thanks that God had seen fit to hide His mysteries from the wise and prudent and reveal them unto ?babes? (Luk_10:21 parallel Mat_11:25).
6. Remainder of the New Testament:
(1) James
The remainder of the New Testament, despite many occurrences of the words ?wise,? ?wisdom,? etc., contains very little that is really relevant to the technical sense of the words. The one notable exception is James, which has even been classed as ?Wisdom literature,? and with some justice. For James has the same appeal to observation of Nature (Jam_1:11; Jam_3:3-6, Jam_3:11, Jam_3:12; Jam_5:7, etc.), the same observation of human life (Jam_2:2, Jam_2:3, Jam_2:15, Jam_2:16; Jam_4:13, etc.), the same antithetical form, and even the same technical use of the word ?wisdom? (Jam_1:5; Jam_3:15-17). The fiery moral zeal, however, is far above that of the other Wisdom books, even above that of Job.
(2) Paul
Paul, on the other hand, belongs to an entirely different class, that of intense religious experience, seeking its premises in revelation. So the Wisdom method is foreign to him and the absence of Nature illustrations from his pages is notorious (even Rom_11:17 is an artificially constructed figure). Only one passage calls for special comment. The ?wisdom? against which he inveighs in 1 Cor 1-3 is not Jewish but Greek-speculation in philosophy, with studied elegance in rhetoric. Still, Jewish or Greek, the moral difficulty was the same. God's message was obscured through an overvaluation of human attainments, and so Paul's use of such Old Testament passages as Isa_29:14; Job_5:13; Psa_94:11 (in 1Co_1:19; 1Co_3:19, 1Co_3:20) is entirely lust. Against this ?wisdom? Paul sets the doctrine of the Cross, something that outraged every human system but which, all the more, taught man his entire dependence on God.
Yet Paul had a ?wisdom? of his own (1Co_2:6), that he taught to Christians of mature moral (not intellectual: 1Co_3:1-3) progress. Some commentators would treat this wisdom as doctrinal and find it in (say) Romans; more probably it is to be connected with the mystical experiences of the Christian whose life has become fully controlled by the Spirit (1Co_2:10-13). For religious progress is always accompanied by a higher insight that can never be described satisfactorily to persons without the same experience (1Co_2:14).
7. Hypostasis:
(1) One characteristic of the Wisdom writers that proved of immense significance for later (especially Christian) theology was a love of rhetorical personification of Wisdom (Pro_1:20-33; 8:1 through 9:6; Sirach 4:11-19; 6:23-31; 14:20-15:10; 24; 51:13-21; The Wisdom of Solomon 6:12 through 9:18; Baruch 3:29-32). Such personifications in themselves are not, of course, remarkable (compare e.g. the treatment of ?love? in 1Co_13:1-13), but the studied, somewhat artificial style of the Wisdom writers carries out the personification with a curious elaboration of details: Wisdom builds her house, marries her disciple, mingles wine, etc. The most famous passage is Pro_8:22-31, however. The Wisdom that is so useful to man was created before man, before, indeed, the creation of the world. When the world was formed she was in her childhood, and while God formed the world she engaged in childish play, under His shelter and to His delight. So Pro_8:30 should be rendered, as the context makes clear that 'mwn should be pointed 'āmūn, ?sheltered,? and not 'āmōn, ?as a master-workman.? And ?Wisdom? is a quality of man (Pro_8:31-36), not a quality of God.
(2) Indeed, ?Wisdom? is an attribute rarely predicated of God in the Old Testament (1Ki_3:28 Isa_10:13; Isa_31:2; Jer_10:12; Jer_51:15; compare Dan_5:11), even in the Wisdom writers (Job_5:12 ff; Job_9:4; Psa_104:24; Pro_3:19). Partly this reticence seems to be due to a feeling that God's knowledge is hardly to be compared in kind to man's, partly to the fact that to the earlier writers ?Wisdom? had a profane sound. Later works, however, have less hesitation in this regard (e.g., Sirach 42:21; Baruch 3:32, the Massoretic Text pointing and the Septuagint of Pro_8:30), so that the personifications became personifications of a quality of God. The result was one of the factors that operated to produce the doctrine of the ?Word? as it appeared in the Palestinian form. See LOGOS.
(3) In the Apocrypha, however, the most advanced step is taken in Wisdom. Wisdom is the only-begotten of God (The Wisdom of Solomon 7:22), the effulgence of eternal light (The Wisdom of Solomon 7:26; compare Heb_1:3), living with God (The Wisdom of Solomon 8:3) and sharing (?) His throne (The Wisdom of Solomon 9:4). She is the origin (or ?mother?) of all creatures (The Wisdom of Solomon 7:12; compare 8:6), continualiar active in penetrating (The Wisdom of Solomon 7:24), ordering (The Wisdom of Solomon 8:1), and renewing (The Wisdom of Solomon 7:27) all things, while carrying inspiration to all holy souls (The Wisdom of Solomon 7:23), especially to Israel (The Wisdom of Solomon 10:17, 18). Here there is no doubt that the personification has ceased to be rhetorical and has become real. Wisdom is thought of as a heavenly being, not so distinctively personal, perhaps, as an angel, but none the less far more than a mere rhetorical term; i.e. she is a ?hypostasis.?
(4) Most of Wisdom's description is simply an expansion of earlier Palestinian concepts, but it is evident that other influence has been at work also and that that influence was Greek. The writer of Wisdom was touched genuinely by the Greek philosophy, and in The Wisdom of Solomon 7:24, at any rate, his ?Wisdom? is the lógos spermatikós of the Stoics, with more than suspicions of Greek influence elsewhere in the descriptions. This combination of Jewish and Greek thought was still further elaborated by Philo - and still further confused. For Philo endeavored to operate with the Wisdom doctrine in its Palestinian form, the Wisdom doctrine into which Wisdom had already infused some Loges doctrine, and the Logos doctrine by itself, without thoroughly understanding the discordant character of his terms. The result is one of the most obscure passages in Philo's system. Sometimes, as in De Fug. section 109, chapter xx, Wisdom is the mother of the Logos, as God is its Father (compare Cherubim, sections 49, 50, chapter xiv), while, again, the relation can be inverted almost in the same context and the Logos appears as the source of Wisdom (De Fug. section 97, chapter xviii). See LOGOS.
(5) Philo's influence was incalculable, and Wisdom, as a heavenly power, plays an almost incredible role in the Gnostic speculations of the 2nd and 3rd centuries, the Gnostic work, Pistis Sophia, probably attaining the climax of unreality. The orthodox Fathers, however, naturally sought Wisdom within the Trinity, and Irenaeus made an identification with the Holy Spirit (iv. 20, 3). Tertullian, on the other hand, identified Wisdom with the Son (probably following earlier precedent) in Adv. Prax., 7, and this identification attained general acceptation. So Pro_8:22-30 became a locus classicus in the Christological controversies (an elaborate exposition in Athanaslus, Orat. ii. 16-22), and persisted as a dogmatic proof-text until a very modern period.
Literature.
The Old Testament Theologies, particularly those of Smend, edition 2 (1899), and Bertholet (1911). For the intermediate period, GJV, III, edition 4 (1909), and Boasset, Die Religion des Judentums, edition 2 (1906). Special works: Toy, ?Wisdom Literature,? EB, IV (1903); Meinhold, Die Weisheit Israels (1908); Friedlander, Griechische Philosophie im Altes Testament (1904, to be used cautiously). On Philo, compare especially Drummond, Philo Judaeus, II, 201-13 (1888). See also the articles on the various books and compare LOGOS; PHILO JUDAEUS.
International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
PRINTER 1915.
Pro_8:12 (b) It is quite clear that this word is used to describe the Lord JESUS CHRIST Himself. The description that follows in this chapter shows clearly that it is none other than our Saviour who is being described. It is a lovely picture of our wonderful Lord in His pre-natal glory.
Wilson's Dictionary of Bible Types
press 1957.
(prop. חָכְמָה, chokmah, σοφία), in a general sense, is a comprehensive knowledge of things in their proper nature and relations, together with the power of combining them in the most useful manner. Among the Hebrews, the term wisdom comprehended a wide circle of virtues and mental endowments (Exo_28:3; Exo_31:6; 1Ki_3:28; 1Ki_4:29-34), and its precise import in the Scriptures can only be ascertained by a close attention to the context. SEE FOOL.
1. It is used to express the understanding or knowledge of things, both humana and divine, chiefly in a practical and moral aspect, especially in the Psalms, Proverbs, and the book of Job. It was this wisdom which Solomon entreated and received of God, especially in a governmental sense.
2. It is put for ingenuity, skill, dexterity, as in the case of the artificers Bezaleel and Aholiab (Exo_28:3; Exodus 31, 3).
3. Wisdom is used for subtlety, craft, stratagem, whether good or evil. Pharaoh dealt wisely with the Israelites (Exodus 1, 10). Jonadab was very wise, i.e. subtle and crafty (2Sa_13:3). In Proverbs (Proverbs 14, 8) it is said, The wisdom of the prudent is to understand his way.
4. It stands for doctrine, learning, experience, sagacity (Job_12:2; Job_12:12; Job_38:37; Psa_105:22).
5. It is put sometimes for the skill or arts of magicians, wizards, fortune tellers, etc. (Gen_41:8; Exo_7:11; Ecc_9:17; Jeremiah 1, 35).
6. The wisdom or learning and philosophy current among the Greeks and Romans in the apostolic age, which stood in contrast with the simplicity of the Gospel, and tended to draw away the minds of men from divine truth, is called fleshly; wisdom(2Co_1:12), wisdom of this world(1Co_1:20; 1Co_3:19), and wisdom of men (1Co_2:5).
7. In respect to divine things, wisdom, i.e. knowledge, insight, deep understanding, is represented everywhere as a divine gift, including the idea of practical application, and is thus distinguished from theoretical knowledge (Act_6:10; 1Co_12:8; Eph_1:17; Col_1:9; 2Ti_3:15; Jam_1:5; Jam_3:13; Jam_3:15; Jam_3:17).
CYCLOPEDIA OF BIBLICAL, THEOLOGICAL AND ECCLESIASTICAL
press 1895.
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